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To obtain a force-wave digital waveguide model of the string-mass
assembly after the mass has struck the string, it only remains to
digitize the model of Fig.9.20. The delays are obviously
to be implemented using digital delay lines. For the mass, we must
digitize the force reflectance appearing in the one-filter model of
Fig.9.20:
 |
(10.18) |
A common choice of digitization method is the bilinear
transform (§7.3.2) because it preserves losslessness and does
not alias. This will effectively yield a wave digital filter
model for the mass in this context (see Appendix F for a tutorial on
wave digital filters).
The bilinear transform is typically scaled as
where
denotes the sampling interval. This choice optimizes the
low-frequency match between the digital and analog mass frequency responses.
Rewriting Eq.(9.18) as
the bilinear transform gives
where the gain coefficient
and pole
are given by
Thus, the reflectance of the mass is a one-pole, one-zero filter. The
zero is exactly at dc, the real pole is close to dc, and the gain at
half the sampling rate is
. We may recognize this as the classic
dc-blocking filter
[452]. Comparing with Eq.(9.18), we see that the behavior
at dc is correct, and that the behavior at infinite frequency
(
) is now the behavior at half the sampling rate
(
).
Physically, the mass reflectance is zero at dc because sufficiently
slow waves can freely move a mass of any finite size. The reflectance
is 1 at infinite frequency because there is no time for the mass to
start moving before it is pushed in the opposite direction. In short,
a mass behaves like a rigid termination at infinite frequency, and a
free end (no termination) at zero frequency. The reflectance of a
mass is therefore a ``dc blocker''.
The final digital waveguide model of the mass-string combination is
shown in Fig.9.21.
Figure 9.21:
Digital waveguide model of
an ideal string with a point mass attached.
![\includegraphics[width=\twidth]{eps/massstringdwmz}](img2174.png) |
Additional examples of lumped-element modeling, including masses,
springs, dashpots, and their various interconnections, are discussed
in the Wave Digital Filters (WDF) appendix (Appendix F). A nice feature of WDFs is that they
employ traveling-wave input/output signals which are ideal for
interfacing to digital waveguides. The main drawback is that the WDFs
operate over a warped frequency axis (due to the bilinear
transform), while digital delay lines have a normal (unwarped)
frequency axis. On the plus side, WDFs cannot alias, while
digital waveguides do alias in the frequency domain for signals that
are not bandlimited to less than half the sampling rate. At low
frequencies (or given sufficient oversampling), the WDF frequency
warping is minimal, and in such cases, WDF ``lumped element models''
may be connected directly to digital waveguides, which are ``sampled-wave
distributed parameter'' models.
Even when the bilinear-transform frequency-warping is severe, it is
often well tolerated when the frequency response has only one
``important frequency'', such as a second-order resonator, lowpass, or
highpass response. In other words, the bilinear transform can be
scaled to map any single analog frequency to any desired corresponding
digital frequency (see
§7.3.2 for details), and the
frequency-warped responses above and below the exactly mapped
frequency may ``sound as good as'' the unwarped responses for
musical purposes. If not, higher order filters can be used to model
lumped elements (Chapter 7).
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