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| source1_coordinates= {{coord|27|57|18|N|80|47|3|W|display=inline}}<ref name=gnis>[http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:308105 Feature Detail Report for: St. Johns River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419101007/https://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=gnispq:3:0::NO::P3_FID:308105 |date=April 19, 2020 }}, US Geological Survey (October 19, 1979). Retrieved on October 25, 2009.</ref>
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| tributaries_left = Mills Creek River, [[Econlockhatchee River]], [[Wekiva River]], [[Alexander Springs Wilderness|Alexander Springs]], [[Salt Springs, Florida|Salt Springs Run]], [[Ocklawaha River]], [[Rice Creek (St. Johns River)|Rice Creek]], Simms Creek, [[
| tributaries_right = Murphy Creek/Dunn's Creek, Julington Creek, [[Pottsburg Creek]], [[Intracoastal Waterway]]/Sisters Creek
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The '''St. Johns River''' ({{lang-es|Río San Juan}}) is the longest river in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Florida]] and it is the most significant one for commercial and recreational use.<ref name=north group=note/> At {{convert|310|mi|km}} long, it flows north and winds through or borders twelve counties. The drop in elevation from headwaters to mouth is less than {{convert|30|ft|m|0}}; like most Florida waterways, the St. Johns has a very slow flow speed of {{convert|0.3|mph|m/s|abbr=on}}, and is often described as "lazy".<ref name="whitney215">Whitney, p. 215.</ref>▼
▲The '''St. Johns River''' ({{
Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it, but as a river its widest point is nearly {{convert|3|mi|km|0}} across. The narrowest point is in the headwaters, an unnavigable marsh in [[Indian River County, FL|Indian River County]]. The St. Johns drainage basin of {{convert|8840|sqmi|km2}} includes some of Florida's major wetlands.<ref name="epa1">[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn1.pdf The St. Johns River: Nominated as an American Heritage River] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201012634/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn1.pdf |date=February 1, 2006 }}, Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref><ref>Whitney, p. 136.</ref> It is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for [[Lake George (Florida)|Lake George]] and the [[Ocklawaha River]], all managed by the [[St. Johns River Water Management District]].▼
▲Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it, but as a river its widest point is nearly {{convert|3|mi|km|0}} across. The narrowest point is in the headwaters, an unnavigable [[marsh]] in [[Indian River County, FL|Indian River County]]. The St. Johns [[drainage basin]] of {{convert|8840|sqmi|km2}} includes some of Florida's major [[Wetland|wetlands]].<ref name="epa1">[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn1.pdf The St. Johns River: Nominated as an American Heritage River] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201012634/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn1.pdf |date=February 1, 2006 }}, Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref><ref>Whitney, p. 136.</ref> It is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for [[Lake George (Florida)|Lake George]] and the [[Ocklawaha River]], all managed by the [[St. Johns River Water Management District]].
Although Florida was the location of the first permanent European settlement in what would become the United States, much of Florida remained an undeveloped frontier into the 20th century. With the growth of population, the St. Johns, like many Florida rivers, was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers, suffering severe pollution and redirection that has diminished its [[ecosystem]]. The St. Johns, named one of 14 [[American Heritage River]]s in 1998, was number 6 on a list of [[America's Ten Most Endangered Rivers]] in 2008.<ref name="ball">Ball, David (April 14, 2008).[http://www.jaxdailyrecord.com/showstory.php?Story_id=49854 St. Johns River Makes 'Endangered' List], ''Jacksonville Financial and Daily Record'', Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref> Restoration efforts are underway for the basins around the St. Johns as Florida's population continues to increase.▼
▲Although Florida was the location of the first permanent European settlement in what would become the United States, much of Florida remained an undeveloped frontier into the 20th century. With the growth of population, the St. Johns, like many Florida rivers, was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers, suffering severe pollution and redirection that has diminished its [[ecosystem]]. The St. Johns, named one of 14 [[American Heritage
Historically, a variety of people have lived on or near the St. Johns, including [[Paleo-indian]]s, [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic people]], [[Timucua]], [[Mocama]], French, Spanish, and British colonists, [[Seminole]]s, slaves and freemen, [[Florida cracker]]s, land developers, tourists and retirees. It has been the subject of [[William Bartram]]'s journals, [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s letters home, and [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]]' books. In the year 2000, 3.5 million people lived within the various watersheds that feed into the St. Johns River.<ref>Belleville, p. xxi.</ref>▼
▲Historically, a variety of people have lived on or near the St. Johns, including [[Paleo-indian]]s, [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic people]], [[Timucua]], [[Mocama]], [[Mayaca people|Mayaca]], [[Ais people|Ais]], French, Spanish, and British colonists, [[Seminole]]s, slaves and freemen, [[Florida cracker]]s, land developers, tourists and retirees. It has been the subject of [[William Bartram]]'s journals, [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s letters home, and [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]]' books.
== Geography and ecology ==▼
Starting in Brevard County and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at [[Duval County, Florida|Duval County]], the St. Johns is Florida's primary commercial and recreational waterway. It flows north from its headwaters, originating in the direction of the Lake Wales Ridge, which is only slightly elevated at {{convert|30|ft|m}} above sea level. Because of this low elevation drop, the river has a long [[Backwater (river)|backwater]]. It ebbs and flows with tides that pass through the barrier islands and up the channel.<ref>McCarthy, p. 2.</ref> Uniquely, it shares the same regional terrain as the parallel [[Kissimmee River]], although the Kissimmee flows south.<ref name="whitney215"/>▼
▲Starting in [[Brevard County, Florida|Brevard County]] and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at [[Duval County, Florida|Duval County]], the St. Johns is Florida's primary commercial and recreational waterway. It flows north from its [[River source|headwaters]], originating in the direction of the [[Lake Wales Ridge]], which is only slightly elevated at {{convert|30|ft|m}} above sea level. Because of this low elevation drop, the river has a long [[Backwater (river)|backwater]].
=== Upper basin ===
The
The upper basin
The river is at its narrowest and most unpredictable in this basin. [[Channel (geography)|Channel]] flows are not apparent and are usually unmarked. The most efficient way to travel on this part of the river is by [[airboat]]. Approximately 3,500 lakes lie within the
Wetlands in the upper and middle basin are fed by rainwater, trapped by the structure of the surrounding land. It is an oxygen- and nutrient-poor environment; what grows usually does so in [[peat]] which is created by centuries of decaying plant material.<ref name="whitney128-130">Whitney, pp. 128–130.</ref> Water levels fluctuate with the subtropical wet and dry seasons. Rain in central and north Florida occurs seasonally during summer and winter, but farther south rain in winter is rare.<ref>Whitney, p. 156.</ref> All plants in these basins must tolerate water fluctuation, both flooding and drought. Sweetbay (''[[Magnolia virginiana]]''), cypress (''[[Taxodium]]''), and swamp tupelo (''[[Nyssa biflora]]'') trees often find great success in this region on raised land called [[hammock (ecology)|hammocks]].<ref name="whitney128-130"/> Trees that live in water for long periods usually have buttressed trunks, tangled, braided roots, or protrusions like cypress knees to obtain oxygen when under water, but the majority of plant life is aquatic. Wetland staples include the American white waterlily (''[[Nymphaea odorata]]''), [[pitcher plant]]s, and Virginia iris (''[[Iris virginica]]''). In the southernmost points of the river, ''[[Cladium]]'', or sawgrass, grows in vast swaths of wet prairie that at one time extended into the [[Everglades]].<ref>Belleville, pp. 11–12.</ref> These wetland flora are remarkably successful in filtering pollutants that otherwise find their way into the river.<ref>Whitney, pp. 132–133.</ref>▼
=== Middle basin ===
[[File:St Johns River Middle Basin.JPG|thumb|alt=The river as a shallow and ill-defined channel dominated by grasses and weeds with few trees; white birds are present in the foreground|The St. Johns immediately south of [[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]] shows a narrow channel with large areas of aquatic plants and wetlands.]]
For {{convert|37|mi|km}} the river passes through a {{convert|1200|sqmi|km2|adj=on}} basin fed primarily by springs and stormwater runoff. This basin, spreading throughout Orange, [[Lake County, Florida|Lake]], [[Volusia County, Florida|Volusia]], and Seminole Counties, is home to the greater [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]] metropolitan area, where two million people live and major tourist attractions are located.<ref>[http://sjr.state.fl.us/publications/pdfs/fs_msjrb.pdf The Middle St. Johns River Basin]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} St. Johns River Water Management District Projects in Central Florida, St. Johns River Water Management District (February 2009).</ref> The topography
Optimally an {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} deep channel about {{convert|100|yards|m}} wide after leaving Lake Monroe, the St. Johns meets its most significant [[tributary]] in the middle basin, the spring-fed [[Wekiva River]], discharging approximately {{convert|42000000|USgal|L}}
[[File:St Johns River.jpg|thumb|alt=The river is smooth as glass and lined by oak and other mixed-forest trees, drooping over and reflected in the water; its width is approximately a dozen yards (11 m).|left|St. Johns River near [[Blue Spring State Park]] showing more distinct banks and trees instead of marshes]]
Of most vital importance to marshes are invertebrate animals, the foundation of [[food webs]]. Amphibious invertebrates such as apple snails (''[[Pomacea paludosa]]''), [[crayfish]], and [[Palaemonetes|grass shrimp]] consume plant material, hastening its decomposition and acting as a food source for fish and birds. Insect larvae use water for breeding, feeding upon smaller [[copepod]]s and [[amphipod]]s that live in microscopic [[algae]] and [[periphyton]] formations.<ref>Whitney, p. 158.</ref> [[Mosquito]]s, born in water, are in turn the favorite food of 112 species of [[dragonflies]] and 44 species of [[damselflies]] in Florida. These animals are water hardy and adaptable to dry conditions when water levels fluctuate from one season to the next or through drought and flood cycles.<ref name="whitney159">Whitney, p. 159.</ref>▼
Of vertebrates, numerous species of frog, salamander, snake, turtle, and alligator (''[[Alligator mississippiensis]]'') proliferate in marsh waters. Most of these animals are active at night. Frog choruses are overwhelming; during alligator mating season the grunts of bulls join in.<ref name="whitney159"/> The marshes around the St. Johns River upper basin teem with birds. A recent study counted 60,000 birds in one month, nesting or feeding in the upper basin.<ref name="epa2">[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn2.pdf The St. Johns River: Nominated as an American Heritage River] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201012642/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/plan/stjohn2.pdf |date=February 1, 2006 }}, Environmental Protection Agency (Part 2). Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref> Wading and water birds like the white ibis (''[[Eudocimus albus]]''), wood stork (''[[Mycteria americana]]''), and purple gallinule (''[[Porphyrio martinicus]]'') depend on the water for raising their young: they prey upon small fish and tadpoles in shallow water and puddles in the dry season. In successful seasons, their colonies can number in the thousands, creating a cacophony of calls and fertilizing trees with their droppings.<ref>Whitney, p. 160.</ref>▼
<gallery caption="Birds found in the middle and upper St. Johns River basins" heights="120px" class="center">▼
File:Ibis Tree.jpg|alt=A tree with no leaves showing dozens of white birds sitting on its branches|American white ibis (''[[Eudocimus albus]]'')▼
File:Hontoon Dead - Barred Owl.jpg|alt=A tawny bird with a flat face and short, rounded beak sitting on a branch in a tree|Barred owl (''[[Strix varia]]'')▼
File:Blue Spring SP - Wood Stork.jpg|alt=A white bird with long legs and a black head and beak standing on one leg on a branch with foliage in the background|Wood stork (''[[Mycteria americana]]'')▼
File:Limpkin near Blue Spring State Park.jpg|alt=A tawny wading bird with a long orange and gray beak, walking in water near a sandy shore with water grasses in the background|Limpkin (''[[Aramus guarauna]]'')▼
File:American Black Vulture - St Johns River.jpg|alt=Two large black birds with black unfeathered heads with their wings half-spread sitting on a tree branch in a tree with few leaves|American black vulture (''[[Coragyps atratus]]'')▼
File:Yellow-crowned Night Heron - St Johns River.jpg|alt=A large gray wading bird with a black, white, and yellow feathered head and a medium-size black and gray beak sitting on a tree branch covered in moss and leaves|Yellow-crowned night heron (''[[Nyctanassa violacea|N. violacea]]'')▼
File:Red-shouldered Hawk - St Johns River.jpg|alt=A red and tawny colored bird of prey sitting on a solitary stick|Red-shouldered hawk (''[[Buteo lineatus]]'')▼
File:Anhinga crop.jpg|alt=A black bird with short legs, long snake-like neck, and black and white feathered wings that are outstretched, drying itself while sitting on a stick protruding from shallow water surrounded by grass|Anhinga (''[[Anhinga anhinga]]'')▼
</gallery>▼
=== Lake George ===
{{Main|Lake George (Florida)}}
The river turns north again as it rolls through a {{convert|46000|acre|km2|adj=on}} basin spreading across [[Putnam County, Florida|Putnam]], Lake, and [[Marion County, Florida|Marion Counties]], and the western part of Volusia County. Slightly north of the Wekiva River is Blue Spring, the largest [[spring (hydrosphere)|spring]] on the St. Johns, producing over {{convert|64000000|USgal|L}} a day.<ref>McCarthy, p. 28.</ref> Florida springs stay at an even temperature of {{convert|72|F|C}} throughout the year. Because of this, Blue Spring is the winter home for West Indian manatees (''[[Trichechus manatus]] latirostris''), and they are protected within [[Blue Spring State Park]]. Manatees are large, slow-moving herbivorous aquatic mammals whose primary threats are human development and collisions with swiftly moving watercraft. Many parts of the St. Johns and its tributaries are no-wake zones to protect manatees from being critically or fatally injured by boat propellers.<ref>[http://myfwc.com/docs/WildlifeHabitats/Manatee_MgmtPlan.pdf Florida Manatee Management Plan] Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (December 2007).</ref> Human interaction with manatees in Blue Spring State Park is forbidden.<ref>[http://www.floridastateparks.org/bluespring/ Blue Spring State Park], Florida Division of Recreation and Parks (2008). Retrieved on July 9, 2009.</ref>▼
The river turns north again as it rolls through a {{convert|46000|acre|km2|adj=on}} basin spreading across [[Putnam County, Florida|Putnam]], Lake, and [[Marion County, Florida|Marion Counties]], and the western part of Volusia County. Slightly north of the Wekiva River is [[Blue Spring State Park]] which contains the largest [[Spring (hydrology)|spring]] on the St. Johns, producing over {{convert|64000000|USgal|L}} per day.<ref>McCarthy, p. 28.</ref> Bordering to the north of Blue Spring State Park is [[Hontoon Island State Park]], accessible only by boat.
[[File:Lake George Florida.JPG|thumb|left|upright|alt=A vast body of water, flat and calm, with a distant horizon and massive clouds overhead that are reflected in the water. In the foreground are aquatic grasses and plants.|Lake George is the second largest lake in Florida and the largest created by the St. Johns.]]
The St. Johns creeps into the southern tip of
=== Ocklawaha River ===
The [[Ocklawaha River]] flows north and joins the St. Johns as the largest tributary, and one of significant historical importance. The Ocklawaha (also printed as Oklawaha) drainage basin expands through Orange, Lake, Marion, and [[Alachua County, Florida|Alachua]] Counties, comprising a total of {{convert|2769|sqmi|km2}}. [[Ocala, Florida|Ocala]], [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], and the northern suburbs of the Orlando metropolitan area are included in this basin. There are two headwaters for the Ocklawaha: a chain of lakes, the largest of which is [[Lake Apopka]] in Lake County, and the [[Green Swamp (Florida)|Green Swamp]] near [[Haines City, Florida|Haines City]] in [[Polk County, Florida|Polk County]], drained by the [[Palatlakaha River]]. The Silver River, fed by one of Florida's most productive springs expelling {{convert|54000000|USgal|L}} daily, is located about midway along the {{convert|96|mi|km|adj=on}} Ocklawaha.<ref>[http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/ocklawaha/ Learn About Your Watershed: Ocklawaha River Watershed] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608195157/http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/ocklawaha/ |date=June 8, 2009 }}, Florida's Water: Ours to Protect, [[Florida Department of Environmental Protection]] (2009). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref>
[[Confederate States Army|Confederate Captain]] [[John William Pearson]] named his militia after the [[Ocklawaha River]] called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gary|first=Loderhose|title=Way Down the Suwannee River: Sketches of Florida During the Civil War|year=2000|publisher=Authors Choice Press|page=13}}</ref> Prior to the civil war, Pearson ran a successful health resort in [[Orange Springs, Florida|Orange Springs]]. After the civil war Pearson's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby [[Silver Springs, Florida|Silver Springs]]—the source of the Silver River—at the turn of the 20th century, popularizing the Ocklawaha. Georgia-born poet [[Sidney Lanier]] called it "the sweetest waterlane in the world" in a travel guide he published in 1876.<ref>Noll and Tegeder, p. 12.</ref><ref>Cabell, p. 15.</ref> The river gave [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]] access to the St. Johns from her homestead at [[Orange Lake, Florida|Orange Lake]]. The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/27/|title = Episode 26 Fishing Boats|date = October 1, 2015|access-date = January 27, 2016|website = A History of Central Florida Podcast|last = Kelley|first = Katie}}</ref> and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred. In particular, [[Lake Apopka]] earned the designation of Florida's most polluted lake following a chemical spill in 1980 that dumped [[Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene|DDE]] in it.<ref>Marino, G. (August 13, 1994). "Lake Apopka Pollution Hurts Bass Population", ''Science News'', '''146''' (7), p. 102.</ref> It has experienced chronic [[algal bloom]]s caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms.<ref name="apopka">[http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_lapopka.pdf Lake Apopka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028002538/http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_lapopka.pdf |date=October 28, 2007 }}, St. Johns River Water Management District (April 2008). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref>▼
The proliferation of largemouth bass (''[[Micropterus salmoides]]''), black crappie (''[[Pomoxis nigromaculatus]]''), and bluegill (''[[Lepomis macrochirus]]'') in central Florida is a major attraction for fishermen from all over the country. The St. Johns is home to 183 species of fish, 55 of which appear in the main stem of the river. One, the southern tessellated darter (''[[Etheostoma olmstedi]]'') is found only in the Ocklawaha.<ref>Whitney, p. 225.</ref> Some are marine species that either migrate upriver to spawn or have found spring-fed habitats that are high in salinity, such as a colony of Atlantic stingrays (''[[Dasyatis sabina]]'') that live in Lake Washington in the upper basin. Ocean worms, snails, and white-fingered mud crabs (''[[Rhithropanopeus harrisii]]'') have also been found far upriver where tidal influences are rare.<ref>Belleville, pp. 36–37.</ref> In contrast, American eels (''[[Anguilla rostrata]]'') live in the St. Johns and Ocklawaha and spawn in the [[Sargasso Sea]] in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. After a year living in the ocean, many of them [[fish migration|find their way back]] to the St. Johns to live, then, prompted by the phases of the moon, make the return journey to spawn and die.<ref>Belleville, pp. 92–93.</ref>▼
=== Lower basin ===
From the intersection of the Ocklawaha River, {{convert|101|mi|km}} to the Atlantic Ocean,
[[File:St Johns River sunset.jpg|thumb|alt=Sunset over a wide river, showing the far bank miles away and the near bank darkened with cypress trees|left|Cypress trees frame a sunset over the St. Johns near Picolata and Tocoi, former ferry landings in [[St. Johns County, Florida|St. Johns County]].]]
The towns and cities along the lower basin of the river are some of the oldest in Florida, and their histories have centered on the river. Both Palatka and [[Green Cove Springs, Florida|Green Cove Springs]] have been popular tourist destinations in the past. Several smaller locations along the river sprang up around ferry landings, but when rail lines and then [[Interstate Highway System|Interstate highways]] were constructed closer to the Atlantic Coast, many of the towns experienced significant economic decline, and ferry landings were forgotten.<ref>McCarthy, pp. 88–100.</ref>
The final {{convert|35|mi|km}} of the river's course runs through Jacksonville with a population of more than
{{Quote box
| width = 350px
| align = right
| quote = If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River —[[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]] in ''[[Cross Creek (book)|Cross Creek]]''
}} Using an unofficial nickname of "The River City", Jacksonville has a culture centered on the St. Johns. An annual footrace named the [[Gate River Run]] accepts 18,000 participants who travel a course along and over the river twice.<ref>[http://www.gate-riverrun.com/ "Gate River Run"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423171004/http://www.gate-riverrun.com/ |date=April 23, 2009 }} Event website. Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref> The largest [[Jacksonville Kingfish Tournament|kingfishing tournament in the U.S.]] is held on a St. Johns tributary, where sport fishers concentrate on king mackerel (''[[Scomberomorus cavalla]]''), cobia (''[[Rachycentron canadum]]''), dolphin (''[[Coryphaena hippurus]]'') and Wahoo (''[[Acanthocybium solandri]]'').<ref>[http://www.kingfishtournament.com/ "Greater Jacksonville Kingfishing Tournament"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415042037/http://www.kingfishtournament.com/ |date=April 15, 2009 }} and [http://www.kingfishtournament.com/rules_gt.php Tournament rules] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002190645/http://www.kingfishtournament.com/rules_gt.php |date=October 2, 2011 }} Event website. Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref> The [[Jacksonville Municipal Stadium|home stadium]] for the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] faces the river, as does most of the commercial center of downtown. Seven bridges span the St. Johns at Jacksonville; all of them allow tall ships to pass, although some restrict passing times when train or automobile traffic is heavy.<ref>Young, pp. 65–71.</ref>{{Clear}}
{{Wide image|JaxpanoAcostanarrow.jpg|1200px|Downtown Jacksonville's commercial district on the St. Johns River}}▼
== Ecology ==
=== Flora ===
▲[[File:Cypress trees Tosohatchee.JPG|thumb|left|upright|alt=A swamp dominated by tall trees with buttressed trunks standing in water, their bark gray. As the trunks get closer to the water the color gradually becomes more brown|Cypress trees in the [[Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area]] showing dark water marks on the flared trunks, evidence of water level flux]]Wetlands in the upper and middle basin are fed by rainwater
Flatwoods forests dominate the Lake George watershed, with slash pines (''[[Pinus elliottii]]''), saw palmetto (''[[Serenoa repens]]''), and over 100 species of groundcover or herbal plants that grow in poor, sandy soil. Flatwoods pine forests stay relatively dry, but can withstand short periods of flooding. Larger land animals such as wild turkeys (''[[Meleagris gallopavo]]''), sandhill cranes (''[[Grus canadensis]]''), and the largest population of southern bald eagles (''[[Haliaeetus leucocephalus]] leucocephalus'') in the contiguous U.S., find it easier to live in the flatwoods.<ref>McCarthy, p. 58.</ref> Typical mammals that live in these ecosystems, such as raccoons (''[[Procyon lotor]]''), opossums (''[[Didelphis virginiana]]''), bobcats (''[[Lynx rufus]]''), and white tailed-deer (''[[Odocoileus virginianus]]''), are ones that prefer dry, flat areas with good ground cover and available nesting sites.<ref>Whitney, pp. 55–65.</ref>
=== Fauna ===
▲Of most vital importance to marshes are invertebrate animals, the foundation of [[food webs]]. Amphibious invertebrates such as apple snails (''[[Pomacea paludosa]]''), [[crayfish]], and [[Palaemonetes|grass shrimp]] consume plant material, hastening its decomposition and acting as a food source for fish and birds. Insect larvae use water for breeding, feeding upon smaller [[copepod]]s and [[amphipod]]s that live in microscopic [[algae]] and [[periphyton]] formations.<ref>Whitney, p. 158.</ref> [[Mosquito]]s, born in water, are in turn the favorite food of 112 species of [[dragonflies]] and 44 species of [[damselflies]] in Florida. These animals are water hardy and adaptable to dry conditions when water levels fluctuate from one season to the next or through drought and flood cycles.<ref name="whitney159">Whitney, p. 159.</ref>
▲Of vertebrates, numerous species of frog, salamander, snake, turtle, and alligator (''[[Alligator mississippiensis]]'') proliferate in marsh waters. Most of these animals are active at night. Frog choruses are overwhelming; during alligator mating season the grunts of bulls join in.<ref name="whitney159" />
Forests surrounding the Wekiva River are home to the largest black bear (''[[Ursus americanus floridanus]]'') population in Florida; several troops of Rhesus monkeys (''[[Macaca mulatta]]'') have adapted to live near the river as well. The monkeys' introduction to Florida is unclear; they were reportedly brought either to serve in backdrop scenes of [[Tarzan]] movies filmed around the [[Silver River (Florida)|Silver River]] in the 1930s, or to lend an air of authenticity to "jungle cruises" provided by an enterprising boat operator around the same time.<ref>McCarthy, p. 26.</ref><ref>Hamaker, Elaine (January 6, 1989). "Silver Springs' Monkey Colony Will Remain", ''The Ocala Star-Banner'', p. 2B.</ref><ref>Belleville, pp. 71–72.</ref>
▲
▲The proliferation of largemouth bass (''[[Micropterus salmoides]]''), black crappie (''[[Pomoxis nigromaculatus]]''), and bluegill (''[[Lepomis macrochirus]]'') in central Florida is a major attraction for fishermen from all over the country. The St. Johns is home to 183 species of fish, 55 of which appear in the main stem of the river. One, the southern tessellated darter (''[[Etheostoma olmstedi]]'') is found only in the Ocklawaha.<ref>Whitney, p. 225.</ref> Some are marine species that either migrate upriver to spawn or have found spring-fed habitats that are high in salinity, such as a colony of Atlantic stingrays (''[[Dasyatis sabina]]'') that live in Lake Washington in the upper basin. Ocean worms, snails, and white-fingered mud crabs (''[[Rhithropanopeus harrisii]]'') have also been found far upriver where tidal influences are rare.<ref>Belleville, pp. 36–37.</ref> In contrast, American eels (''[[Anguilla rostrata]]'') live in the St. Johns and Ocklawaha and spawn in the [[Sargasso Sea]] in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. After a year living in the ocean, many of them [[fish migration|find their way back]] to the St. Johns to live, then, prompted by the phases of the moon, make the return journey to spawn and die.<ref>Belleville, pp. 92–93.</ref>
Tides cause seawater to enter the mouth of the St. Johns River and can affect the river's level into the middle basin. As a result, much of the river in Jacksonville is part seawater, making it an [[estuarine]] ecosystem. The animals and plants in these systems can tolerate both fresh and salt water, and the fluctuations in saline content and temperatures associated with tidal surges and heavy rainfall discharge.<ref>Whitney, pp. 303–304.</ref> Marine animals such as dolphins and sharks can be spotted at times in the St. Johns at Jacksonville as can manatees. Fish such as mullet (''[[Mullidae]]''), flounder (''[[Paralichthys lethostigma]]''), shad (''[[Alosa sapidissima]]''), and blue crabs (''[[Callinectes sapidus]]'') migrate from the ocean to freshwater springs upriver to spawn.<ref>Whitney, p. 310.</ref>
Although freshwater invertebrates inhabiting and comprising algae and periphyton make the foundation of food webs in the middle and lower basin, [[zooplankton]] and [[phytoplankton]] take that role in the estuarine habitat. [[Mollusks]] gather at the St. Johns estuary in large numbers, feeding on the bottom of the river and ocean floors.<ref>Whitney, pp. 313–319.</ref> The abundance and importance of oysters (''[[Crassostrea virginica]]'') is apparent in the many [[midden]]s left by the Timucua in mounds many feet high. Oysters and other mollusks serve as the primary food source of shorebirds. The large trees that line the river from its source to south of Jacksonville begin to transition into salt marshes east of the city. [[Mayport (Jacksonville)|Mayport]] is home to approximately 20 shrimping vessels that use the mouth of the St. Johns to access the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>Van Hooser, Liz (July 31, 2009). [http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/073108/lif_311065844.shtml What Makes a Shrimp a Mayport Shrimp?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316054402/http://jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/073108/lif_311065844.shtml
▲<gallery caption="Birds found in the middle and upper St. Johns River basins" heights="120px" class="center">
▲{{Wide image|JaxpanoAcostanarrow.jpg|1200px|Downtown Jacksonville's commercial district on the St. Johns River}}
▲File:Ibis Tree.jpg|alt=A tree with no leaves showing dozens of white birds sitting on its branches|American white ibis (''[[Eudocimus albus]]'')
▲File:Hontoon Dead - Barred Owl.jpg|alt=A tawny bird with a flat face and short, rounded beak sitting on a branch in a tree|Barred owl (''[[Strix varia]]'')
▲File:Blue Spring SP - Wood Stork.jpg|alt=A white bird with long legs and a black head and beak standing on one leg on a branch with foliage in the background|Wood stork (''[[Mycteria americana]]'')
▲File:Limpkin near Blue Spring State Park.jpg|alt=A tawny wading bird with a long orange and gray beak, walking in water near a sandy shore with water grasses in the background|Limpkin (''[[Aramus guarauna]]'')
▲File:American Black Vulture - St Johns River.jpg|alt=Two large black birds with black unfeathered heads with their wings half-spread sitting on a tree branch in a tree with few leaves|American black vulture (''[[Coragyps atratus]]'')
▲File:Yellow-crowned Night Heron - St Johns River.jpg|alt=A large gray wading bird with a black, white, and yellow feathered head and a medium-size black and gray beak sitting on a tree branch covered in moss and leaves|Yellow-crowned night heron (''[[Nyctanassa violacea|N. violacea]]'')
▲File:Red-shouldered Hawk - St Johns River.jpg|alt=A red and tawny colored bird of prey sitting on a solitary stick|Red-shouldered hawk (''[[Buteo lineatus]]'')
▲File:Anhinga crop.jpg|alt=A black bird with short legs, long snake-like neck, and black and white feathered wings that are outstretched, drying itself while sitting on a stick protruding from shallow water surrounded by grass|Anhinga (''[[Anhinga anhinga]]'')
▲</gallery>
== Formation and hydrology ==
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=== Geologic history ===
Lying within a [[coastal plain]], the St. Johns River passes through an area that was at one time barrier islands, coastal dunes, and estuary marshes. The Florida Peninsula was created primarily by forces and minerals from the ocean. It lies so low that minor fluctuations in sea levels can have a dramatic effect on its geomorphology. Florida was once part of the supercontinent [[Gondwana]]. Lying underneath the visible rock formations is a [[Basement rock|basement]] of [[igneous]] [[granite]] and volcanic composition under a sedimentary layer formed during the [[Paleozoic era]] 542 to 251 million years ago. During the [[Cretaceous period]] (145 to 66 million years ago), the basement and its sedimentary overlay were further covered by [[calcium carbonate]] and formations left by the evaporation of water called [[evaporites]].<ref>Randazzo and Jones, pp. 13–25.</ref> What covers the peninsula is the result of simultaneous processes of deposits of sands, shells, and coral, and erosion from water and weather.<ref>Randazzo and Jones, pp. 1–3.</ref> As ocean water has retreated and progressed, the peninsula has been covered with sea water at least seven times. Waves compressed sands, calcium carbonate, and shells into [[limestone]]; at the ocean's edge, beach ridges were created by this depositional forming.
From its origins to approximately the area of Sanford, the St. Johns flows north.<ref name="randazzo12">Randazzo and Jones, p. 12.</ref> It takes a sharp turn west near Sanford for a few miles—which is referred to as the ''St. Johns River offset'', but shortly changes direction to flow north again. Geologists hypothesize that the west-flowing offset may have formed earlier than the north flowing portions, possibly during the late [[Tertiary]] or early [[Pleistocene]] era 66 to 12 million years ago. Some fracturing and faulting may also be responsible for the offset.<ref name="randazzo12"/> Although seismic activity in Florida is mostly insignificant, several minor earthquakes have occurred near the St. Johns River, caused by the trough created by [[Pangaea]]n [[rifting]].<ref>Randazzo and Jones, p. 217.</ref>
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The St. Johns River lies within a [[humid subtropical]] zone. In summer months, the temperature ranges from {{convert|74|and|92|F|C}}, and between {{convert|50|and|72|F|C}} in the winter, although drops may occur in winter months to below freezing approximately a dozen times. Water temperatures in the river correlate to the air temperatures. The average range of water temperatures is between {{convert|50|and|95|F|C}}, rising in the summer months.<ref name="kroening"/> Where the river widens between Palatka and Jacksonville, wind becomes a significant factor in navigation, and both [[Wind wave|whitecap waves]] and calm surface waters are common.<ref>Young, p. 71.</ref>
Rain occurs more frequently in late summer and early fall.<ref name="bourgerie"/> [[Tropical storm]]s and [[nor'easter]]s are common occurrences along the Atlantic coast of Florida; the St. Johns River lies between {{convert|10|and|30|mi|km}} inland, so any storm striking the counties of Indian River north to Duval produces rain that is drained by the St. Johns River. [[Tropical Storm Fay (2008)|Tropical Storm Fay]] in 2008 deposited {{convert|16|in|mm}} of rain in a 5-day period, most of it located near [[Melbourne, Florida|Melbourne]]. The St. Johns near [[Geneva, Florida|Geneva]] in Seminole County rose {{convert|7|ft|m}} in four days, setting a record. The river near Sanford rose {{convert|3|ft|m|0}} in 36 hours. Fay caused severe flooding in the middle basin due not only to the deluge but the flat slopes of the river.<ref>Quilian, Wylie, and Whitin, Bret (April 2009). "An Analysis of the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Factors During Flooding on the St. Johns River Caused by Tropical Storm Fay", National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.</ref> Typically, however, the St. Johns basin receives between {{convert|50|and|54|in|mm}} of rain annually, half of it in summer months.<ref name="weatherbase">[http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=540227&refer= Vero Beach, Florida] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307224032/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=540227&refer= |date=March 7, 2012 }}, [http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=86237&refer= Sanford, Florida] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307224130/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=86237&refer= |date=March 7, 2012 }}, and [http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60227&refer= Jacksonville, Florida] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307224139/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60227&refer= |date=March 7, 2012 }}, weatherbase.com. Retrieved on July 15, 2009.</ref> The rate of evapotranspiration corresponds to rainfall, ranging between {{convert|27|and|57|in|mm}} a year, most of it occurring in the summer.<ref name="kroening">Kroening, Sharon (2004). [http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2004/5177/pdf/sir20045177.pdf Streamflow and water-quality characteristics at selected sites of the St. Johns River in central Florida, 1933 to 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605122624/http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2004/5177/pdf/sir20045177.pdf |date=June 5, 2011 }}, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. i–102. Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref>
{{Image frame|align=center|
|alt=Bar graph representing monthly rainfall for Vero Beach, Sanford, and Jacksonville; between January and May, average rainfall ranges between two and three and a half inches. From June to September, the numbers double, then decrease from seven to three inches from October to December
|caption=Average monthly rainfall (in inches) for three cities ([[Vero Beach, Florida|Vero Beach]], [[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]], [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]) on the St. Johns<ref>{{cite web |access-date=June 20, 2019 |title=Vero Beach, Florida Travel Weather Averages |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=540227&units= |website=Weatherbase}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=June 20, 2019 |title=Sanford, Florida Travel Weather Averages |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=86237&units= |website=Weatherbase}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=June 20, 2019 |title=Jacksonville, Florida Travel Weather Averages |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60227&units= |website=Weatherbase |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094036/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60227&units= |url-status=live }}</ref>
|content=
{{Graph:Chart
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The entire river lies within the nearly flat Pamlico terrace, giving it an overall gradient of {{convert|0.8|in|cm}} per mile (km); it is one of the flattest major rivers on the continent.<ref name="benke100"/> Its proximity to the ocean in the lower basin affects its rise and fall with tides and salinity. Tides regularly affect water levels as far south as Lake George; when combined with extreme winds, the river's tidal effects can extend to Lake Monroe {{convert|161|mi|km}} away and have on occasion reached Lake Harney.<ref name="bourgerie"/> Tides typically raise the river level about {{convert|1.2|ft|m}} at Jacksonville, decreasing some to {{convert|0.7|ft|m}} at [[Orange Park, Florida|Orange Park]] where the river widens, and increasing back to {{convert|1.2|ft|m}} at Palatka as it narrows. As a result of tidal effects, discharge measurements in the lower basin are often inaccurate. However, the estimated rate of discharge between the Ocklawaha River and the center of Jacksonville ranges from {{convert|4000|to|8300|cuft|m3}} per second.<ref name="spechler"/> The nontidal discharge at the mouth at Mayport averages {{convert|15000|cuft|m3}} per second, but with tides it exceeds {{convert|50000|cuft|m3}} per second, and following heavy rains combined with tides can top {{convert|150000|cuft|m3}} per second.<ref name="bourgerie"/> Farther upriver, the discharge rate ranges from {{convert|1030|cuft|m3}} per second near Lake Poinsett to {{convert|2850|cuft|m3}} per second near DeLand. The confluence of numerous springs, the Econlockhatchee River, and the Wekiva River causes the average discharge to increase by {{convert|940|cuft|m3}} per second between Lake Harney and DeLand, representing the greatest annual average increase of streamflow along the St. Johns.<ref name="kroening"/>
As distance between the mouth of the St. Johns and the middle and upper basins increases, the [[salinity]] in the river gradually decreases. Marine water measures at 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or more while fresh water measures below 2 ppt. What ranges in between is characterized as brackish water. Near the center of Jacksonville, average measures have been collected at 11.40 ppt. Farther south at the Buckman Bridge, joining the south side of Jacksonville to Orange Park, it decreases to 2.9 ppt and falls again to 0.81 ppt at the [[Shands Bridge]] near [[Green Cove Springs, Florida|Green Cove Springs]].<ref>[http://www.stjohnsriveralliance.com/waterwithdrawl.pdf "Environmental Protection"] (Power Point Presentation, slide 8), St. Johns River Water Management District, hosted at stjohnsriveralliance.com. Retrieved on July 17, 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716143602/http://www.stjohnsriveralliance.com/waterwithdrawl.pdf |date=July 16, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="coj">[http://www.coj.net/departments/environmental-and-compliance/environmental-quality/surface-water-quality/water-quality-terms-and-definitions.aspx Water Quality Terms and Definitions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922173702/http://www.coj.net/departments/environmental-and-compliance/environmental-quality/surface-water-quality/water-quality-terms-and-definitions.aspx |date=September 22, 2018 }} City of Jacksonville website (2003). Retrieved on July 17, 2009.</ref>
[[Oxygen saturation|Dissolved oxygen]] in fresh water is measured to indicate the health of plant and animal life. It enters water through the atmosphere and from aquatic plant photosynthesis, and is affected by water pressure and temperature. Rapid decomposition of organic materials will decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the river, as will nutrients added to the water artificially by [[wastewater treatment]] runoff or drainage from fertilized agricultural fields. The U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] and the State of Florida recommend no less than 5 mg of oxygen per liter. Several locations on the St. Johns or its tributaries reported at or below these minimums in the 1990s, including the mouth of the Wekiva River, the St. Johns at the town of [[Christmas, Florida|Christmas]], and in the early 2000s at Blue Spring and Blackwater Creek.<ref name="kroening"/> Sustained low levels of dissolved oxygen may create algal blooms, which may also cause a further decrease in dissolved oxygen.<ref name="coj"/>
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[[File:Timucua owl totem.jpg|thumb|alt=A tall, wooden figure representing an owl on display indoors|upright|left|An extremely rare [[Timucua]] owl [[totem]], found buried in muck near [[Hontoon Island]], on display at [[Fort Caroline National Memorial]]]]
Around 9,000 years ago, the climate warmed, melting much of the polar ice caps and many glaciers, creating a wetter environment and submerging half the peninsular shelf. As Paleo-Indians now did not have to travel as far to find water, their camps became more permanent, turning into villages. With evidence of a wide variety of tools constructed around this time, archeologists note the transition into [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic people]]. The Archaic people made tools from bone, animal teeth, and antlers. They wove fibers from plants such as cabbage palms and saw palmettos. A few burial sites have been excavated—including the [[Windover Archaeological Site]] in Brevard County near [[Titusville, Florida|Titusville]]—that provide evidence of burial rituals. Archaic peoples interred their dead in shallow [[bogs|peat marshes]], which preserved much of the human tissue.<ref>Gannon, pp. 3–4.</ref><ref>{{cite
The advent of regional types of pottery and stone tools made of flint or limestone marked further advancements around 500 [[Common Era|BCE]]. The Archaic people transitioned into settled groups around Florida. From the central part of the state north, along the Atlantic Coast lived people in the [[St. Johns culture]], named for the most significant nearby natural formation. Around 750 [[Common Era|CE]], the St. Johns culture learned to cultivate corn, adding to their diet of fish, game, and gourds. Archeologists and anthropologists date this agricultural advancement to coincide with a spread of archeological sites, suggesting that a population increase followed.<ref>Gannon, p. 6.</ref> When European explorers arrived in north Florida, they met the [[Timucua]], numbering about 14,000, the largest group of indigenous people in the region.<ref name="tebeau16">Tebeau, p. 16.</ref> The later [[Seminole]] people called the river ''Welaka'' or ''Ylacco''. These forms may derive from the [[Creek language|Creek]] ''wi-láko'', "big water", a compound usually applied to large rivers that run through lakes; the St. Johns forms and borders numerous lakes. Alternately, the Seminole name may derive from ''walaka'' (from ''wi-alaka'', "water" and "coming"), perhaps a reference to the river's slow discharge and the tidal effects on it. The name is sometimes rendered as "Chain of Lakes" in English.<ref>Read, p. 39.</ref><ref>Simpson, p. 130.</ref><ref>Cabell, p. 4.</ref>
In 1955 an extremely rare [[Timucua]] [[totem]] representing an owl was found buried and preserved in the St. Johns muck off of [[Hontoon Island]].<ref>Belleville, p. 89.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassanello |first1=Robert |date=January 2013 |title="Episode 05 Hontoon Owl Totem" by Robert Cassanello and Chip Ford |url=http://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/5/ |url-status=live |journal=A History of Central Florida Podcast |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417081808/https://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/5/ |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |access-date=2016-01-09}}</ref> The figure may signify that its creators were part of the owl clan. Representing different clans of the Timucua, two more totems—in all, the only totems in North America to have been found outside of the Pacific Northwest—shaped like a pelican and otter were found in 1978 after being snagged by a barge at the bottom of the river.
=== Colonial era ===
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The French and Spanish continued to spar over who would control the natural resources and native peoples of the territory. The Timucua, who had initially befriended the French, were not encouraged to make the Spanish allies because of colonial governor [[Pedro Menéndez de Avilés]]' abhorrence of [[Huguenot|French Protestantism]] and his view that the Timucuan beliefs were "Satanic".<ref>Gannon, p. 49.</ref> By 1573, the Timucua were in outright rebellion, testing the governor's patience and forcing Spanish settlers to abandon farms and garrisons in more interior parts of Florida; the Spanish could not persuade the Timucua to keep from attacking them.<ref>Gannon, p. 57.</ref>
[[File:1857 U.S. Coast Survey Map or Chart of the Mouth of St. Johns River, Florida - Geographicus - StJohnsRiver-uscs-1857.jpg|thumb|U.S. Coast Survey chart of the Mouth of St. Johns River in 1857]]
Over a hundred years later, missionaries had more success, setting up posts along the river. Spanish Franciscan missionaries gave the river its current name based on ''[[San Juan del Puerto, Florida|San Juan del Puerto]]'' (St. John of the Harbor), the [[Mission (station)|mission]] established at the river's mouth following the demise of the French fort. The name first appeared on a Spanish map created between 1680 and 1700.<ref>Cabell, p. 8.</ref>
Line 236 ⟶ 241:
[[Florida in the American Civil War|Florida's involvement]] in the [[U.S. Civil War]] was limited compared to other [[Confederate States of America|Confederate states]] because it had a fraction of the populations of states that had been developed. Florida provided materials to the Confederacy by way of steamboats on the St. Johns, although the river and the Atlantic coasts were blockaded by the U.S. Navy. One action in Florida's role in the Civil War was the sinking of the {{USS|Columbine|1862|6}}, a Union [[paddle steamer]] used for patrolling the St. Johns to keep materials from reaching the Confederate Army. In 1864, near Palatka, Confederate forces under the command of Capt. [[John Jackson Dickison]] captured, burned, and sank the USS ''Columbine'', making her perhaps the only ship commandeered by the Confederacy.<ref>McCarthy, pp. 75–76.</ref><ref>Cabell, pp. 213–215.</ref> The same year and farther downriver, Confederates again sank a Union boat, the ''[[Maple Leaf (shipwreck)|Maple Leaf]]'', which struck a floating keg filled with explosives and settled into the muck near [[Julington Creek]], south of Jacksonville. Part of the shipwreck was recovered in 1994, when it was discovered that many Civil War-era artifacts, including [[daguerreotype]]s and wooden matches, had been preserved in the river muck.<ref>McCarthy, pp. 111–112.</ref>
▲[[Confederate States Army|Confederate Captain]] [[John William Pearson]] named his militia after the [[Ocklawaha River]] called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gary |first=Loderhose |title=Way Down the Suwannee River: Sketches of Florida During the Civil War
Although the Spanish had colonized Florida for two centuries, the state remained the last part of the east coast of the United States to be developed and explored.<ref name="McCarthy, p. 20"/> Following the Civil War, the State of Florida was too far in debt to build roads and rail lines to further its progress. Florida Governor [[William Bloxham]] in 1881 appealed directly to a Pennsylvania-based industrialist named [[Hamilton Disston]], initially to build canals to improve steamboat passage through the [[Caloosahatchee River]], and later to drain lands in the central part of the state for agriculture. Disston was furthermore persuaded to purchase {{convert|4000000|acre|km2}} of land in central Florida for $1 million, which at the time was reported to be the largest purchase of land in human history. Disston was ultimately unsuccessful in his drainage attempts, but his investment sparked the tourist industry and made possible the efforts of railroad magnates [[Henry Flagler]] and [[Henry Plant]] to construct rail lines down the east coast of Florida, including a rail link between Sanford and Tampa. Disston was responsible for creating the towns of [[Kissimmee, Florida|Kissimmee]], [[St. Cloud, Florida|St. Cloud]], and several others on the west coast of Florida.<ref>Lemar, L. Stephan (January 1944). "Historico-Economic Aspects of Drainage in the Florida Everglades", ''Southern Economic Journal'', '''10''' (3), pp. 197–211.</ref><ref>Davis, T. Frederick (January 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase". ''The Florida Historical Quarterly'', '''17''' (3): pp. 201–211.</ref>▼
▲Although the Spanish had colonized Florida for two centuries, the state remained the last part of the east coast of the United States to be developed and explored.<ref name="McCarthy, p. 20" /> Following the Civil War, the State of Florida was too far in debt to build roads and rail lines to further its progress. Florida Governor [[William Bloxham]] in 1881 appealed directly to a Pennsylvania-based industrialist named [[Hamilton Disston]], initially to build canals to improve steamboat passage through the [[Caloosahatchee River]], and later to drain lands in the central part of the state for agriculture. Disston was furthermore persuaded to purchase {{convert|4000000|acre|km2}} of land in central Florida for $1 million, which at the time was reported to be the largest purchase of land in human history. Disston was ultimately unsuccessful in his drainage attempts, but his investment sparked the tourist industry and made possible the efforts of railroad magnates [[Henry Flagler]] and [[Henry Plant]] to construct rail lines down the east coast of Florida, including a rail link between Sanford and Tampa. Disston was responsible for creating the towns of [[Kissimmee, Florida|Kissimmee]], [[St. Cloud, Florida|St. Cloud]], and several others on the west coast of Florida.<ref>Lemar, L. Stephan (January 1944). "Historico-Economic Aspects of Drainage in the Florida Everglades", ''Southern Economic Journal'', '''10''' (3), pp. 197–211.</ref><ref>Davis, T. Frederick (January 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase". ''The Florida Historical Quarterly'', '''17''' (3): pp. 201–211.</ref>
[[File:Mrs. H.B. Stowe's Place at Mandarin, on St. Johns River, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.png|thumb|alt=A stereoscope card showing a cottage with five people sitting on the porch and an enormous oak tree growing on the right; the tree is so large it appears to be growing through the roof and the drainpipe wraps around it|left|Stereoscopic view of [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s house in [[Mandarin, Florida|Mandarin]]]]
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[[File:Fellsmere Farms Florida in 1912.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A field recently excavated and cleared with a few slash pine trees, and recently dug canals and new dirt roads; some structures also dot the background|Progress of Fellsmere Farms in 1912]]
An Englishman named [[Nelson Fell]], persuaded by Disston's advertisements to make his fortunes in Florida, arrived in the 1880s. An engineer by trade, Fell purchased {{convert|12000|acre|km2}} near [[Lake Tohopekaliga]] to create a town named [[Narcoossee, Florida|Narcoossee]], which had a population of more than 200 English immigrants by 1888. A spate of poor luck and tense British-American relations followed, prompting Fell to spend some years investing in infrastructure in [[Siberia]], but he returned in 1909 with ideas of developing wetlands in central Florida. He was further encouraged by the political promises of Governor [[Napoleon Bonaparte Broward]] to [[Draining and development of the Everglades|drain the Everglades]] during his 1904 campaign. In 1910 Fell purchased {{convert|118000|acre|km2}} of land for $1.35 an acre and started the Fellsmere Farms Company to drain the St. Johns Marsh in 1911 and send water into the [[Indian River Lagoon]], promoting the engineered canals and other structures as wondrously efficient in providing land to build a massive metropolis.<ref>Belleville, p. 15.</ref> Some progress was made initially, including the establishment of the town of [[Fellsmere, Florida|Fellsmere]] in which land was sold for $100 an acre, but sales lagged because of a scandal regarding land sale fraud and faulty draining reports from the Everglades. The company then found itself short of funds due to mismanagement. Torrential rains ruptured the newly constructed levees and dikes and forced the company by 1916 to go into receivership. Fell left Florida for Virginia in 1917.<ref>Patterson, Gordon (Summer, 1997). "Ditches and Dreams: Nelson Fell and the Rise of Fellsmere", ''The Florida Historical Quarterly'', 76 (1), pp. 1–20.</ref><ref>Siewert, Walter A. (October 22, 1988). [http://www.cityoffellsmere.org/documents/history/HistoryofFWCD.pdf A History of the Fellsmere Water Drainage District"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724055455/http://www.cityoffellsmere.org/documents/history/HistoryofFWCD.pdf |date=July 24, 2011 }}, hosted by [http://www.cityoffellsmere.org/history.php City of Fellsmere website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103013805/http://www.cityoffellsmere.org/history.php |date=January 3, 2010 }}. Retrieved on July 13, 2009.</ref>
[[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]] used the St. Johns as a backdrop in her books ''[[South Moon Under]]'' and ''[[The Yearling]]'', and several short stories. In 1933 she took a boat trip along the St. Johns with a friend. In the upper basin, she remarked on the difficulty of determining direction due to the river's ambiguous flow, and wrote in a chapter titled "Hyacinth Drift" in her memoir ''[[Cross Creek (book)|Cross Creek]]'' that she had the best luck in watching the way the hyacinths floated.<ref>Rawlings, pp. 354–370.</ref> Rawlings wrote, "If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River."<ref>Rawlings, p. 362.</ref><ref group=note>When Rawlings and her friend stopped in Sanford to purchase gasoline, a yacht owner offered to have his crew take her to town to buy it, but he was interrupted when his wife, resplendent in a "pink spectator sports costume", demanded he take her to church instead. As Rawlings left the dock at Sanford, her friend remarked, "The poor b—. I bet he'd give his silk shirt to go down the river with us instead of Pink Petticoats". (Rawlings, p. 366.)</ref>
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What could have been the most serious human impact on nature in central Florida was the [[Cross Florida Barge Canal]], an attempt to connect the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the state by channeling the Ocklawaha River, first authorized in 1933.<ref group=note>Author and University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy characterized the Cross Florida Barge Canal as "probably the single most dangerous threat to the water resources of the state in the twentieth century". (McCarthy, p. 76.)</ref> The canal was intended to be {{convert|171|mi|km}} long, {{convert|250|ft|m}} wide, and {{convert|30|ft|m}} deep.<ref>Noll and Tegeder, pp. 21–22.</ref> Canal construction was top among the engineering priorities in the state, and by 1964 the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] began construction on the Cross Florida Barge Canal. Flood control was the primary impetus behind its construction, though the broader reasoning and feasibility of the project remained unclear. The Army Corps of Engineers was also constructing hundreds of miles of canals in the Everglades at the same time and by the 1960s was being accused of wasting tax money through its unnecessary construction projects.<ref>Noll and Tegeder, p. 29.</ref> In 1969 the [[Environmental Defense Fund]] filed suit in federal court to stop construction on the canal, citing irreparable harm that would be done to Florida waterways and the Floridan Aquifer, central and north Florida's fresh water source.<ref>Noll and Tegeder, pp. 34–35.</ref>
A separate canal, the [[St. Johns-Indian River Barge Canal]], was planned to link the river with the [[Intracoastal Waterway]];<ref name="CanalNeed">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=YbwqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rWUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4715,4440158 "Need For Canal Is Stressed"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094420/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=YbwqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rWUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4715,4440158 |date=February 13, 2023 }}, ''[[Sarasota Herald-Tribune]]'', September 21, 1963</ref> the project never broke ground, and was canceled soon after the Cross Florida Barge Canal was suspended.<ref name="VolDead">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=628eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=dskEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6194,1139898 "St. Johns-Indian River Canal Kaput"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213095243/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=628eAAAAIBAJ&sjid=dskEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6194,1139898 |date=February 13, 2023 }}, ''Daytona Beach Morning Journal'', October 19, 1973</ref>
=== Restoration ===
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[[Nitrates]] and [[phosphorus]] used as lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns. Broken septic systems and seepage from cattle grazing lands create pollution that also finds its way into the river. Storm water washes from street drains directly to the river and its tributaries: in the 1970s, the Econlockhatchee River received {{convert|8000000|USgal|L}} of treated wastewater every day.<ref>[http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/middle_st_johns/ Middle St. Johns River Watershed] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005131347/http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/middle_st_johns/ |date=October 5, 2009 }}. Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2009). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref> Wetlands were drained and paved, unable to filter pollutants from the water, made worse by the river's own slow discharge. Algal blooms, fish kills, and deformations and lesions on fish occur regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville. Although most of the pollutants in the river are washed from the southern parts of the river, the Jacksonville area produces approximately 36 percent of them found in the lower basin.<ref>[http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/lower_st_johns/ Lower St. Johns River Watershed] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005131342/http://www.protectingourwater.org/watersheds/map/lower_st_johns/ |date=October 5, 2009 }}. Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2009). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref>
The State of Florida implemented a program named Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) in 1987 to assist with river cleanups, particularly with [[nonpoint source pollution]], or chemicals that enter the river by soaking into the ground, as opposed to direct piped dumping.<ref>[http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/swim.htm Surface Water Improvement and Management Program (SWIM)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091031012318/http://www.dep.state.fl.us/Water/watersheds/swim.htm |date=October 31, 2009 }}, Florida Department of Environmental Protection (July 9, 2008). Retrieved on July 20, 2009.</ref> SWIM assists local jurisdictions with purchasing land for wetlands restoration. The St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) is charged by the [[Florida Department of Environmental Protection]] (DEP) with restoring the river. The first step in restoration, particularly in the upper basin, is the purchase of public lands bordering the river; ten different reserves and conservation areas have been implemented for such use around the St. Johns headwaters.<ref name="upperbasin"/> Around [[Lake Griffin]] in the Ocklawaha Chain of Lakes, the SJRWMD has purchased {{convert|6500|acre|km2}} of land that was previously used for muck farming.<ref>[http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_lgriffin.pdf Lake Griffin], St. Johns River Water Management District (March 2003). Retrieved on July 19, 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028002112/http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_lgriffin.pdf |date=October 28, 2007 }}</ref> More than {{convert|19000|acre|km2}} have been purchased along Lake Apopka to restore its wetlands, and the SJRWMD has removed nearly {{convert|15000000|lbs|kg}} of gizzard shad (''[[Dorosoma cepedianum]]''), a fish species that stores phosphorus and adds to algae problems.<ref name="apopka"/> The SJRWMD has also set minimum levels for the lakes and tributaries in the St. Johns watersheds to monitor permitted water withdrawals and declare water shortages when necessary.<ref>[http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_minflowlevels.pdf "Minimum Flows and Levels"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731100438/http://www.sjrwmd.com/publications/pdfs/fs_minflowlevels.pdf |date=July 31, 2009 }}, St. Johns River Water Management District (May 22, 2001). Retrieved on July 20, 2009.</ref>
To assist with river cleanup and the associated funds for improving water quality in the St. Johns, Mayor [[John Delaney (mayor)|John Delaney]] of Jacksonville waged a campaign to get it named as an [[American Heritage River]], beginning in 1997. The designation by the Environmental Protection Agency is intended to coordinate efforts among federal agencies to improve natural resource and environmental protection, economic revitalization, and historic and cultural preservation.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/eo13061.html Executive Order 13061: Federal Support of Community Efforts Along American Heritage Rivers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831174528/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/eo13061.html |date=August 31, 2009 }}, Environmental Protection Agency (September 11, 1997). Retrieved on July 20, 2009.</ref> The campaign was controversial as the Republican mayor defended asking for federal government assistance, writing "Other rivers have relied heavily on federal help for massive environmental clean-ups. It's the St. Johns' turn now."<ref>Delaney, John (March 15, 2008). "Our River: The Debate", ''Florida Times-Union'', p. F-1.</ref> Twenty-two towns along the St. Johns and environmental, sporting, recreation, boating, and educational organizations also supported its designation,<ref>"Our River: The Debate, Part II", ''Florida Times-Union'' (March 15, 2008), p. F-7.</ref> but several prominent Republican politicians expressed concerns over increased federal regulations and restrictions on private property ownership along the river; the [[Florida House of Representatives]] passed a resolution asking President [[Bill Clinton]] not to include the St. Johns. Despite this, Clinton designated the St. Johns as one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers out of 126 nominated in 1998 for its ecological, historic, economic and cultural significance.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/98rivers/sjr_agre.html American Heritage Rivers Initiative Partnership Agreement between the St. Johns River Community, State, Regional and Federal Agencies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218201201/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/98rivers/sjr_agre.html |date=February 18, 2010 }}, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (October 19, 2006). Retrieved on July 16, 2009.</ref><ref>Patterson, Steve (June 17, 1998). "St. Johns River on Heritage List", ''Florida Times-Union'', p. A-1.</ref>
The continuing increase of population in Florida has caused urban planners to forecast that the [[Floridan Aquifer]] will no longer be able to sustain the people living in north Florida. By 2020, 7 million people are predicted to live in the St. Johns basins, double the number living there in 2008.<ref>[http://www.americanrivers.org/newsroom/press-releases/2008/future-of-st-johns-river.html Future of St. Johns River, One of America's Most Endangered Rivers of 2008, Still Hangs in the Balance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206082236/http://www.americanrivers.org/newsroom/press-releases/2008/future-of-st-johns-river.html |date=December 6, 2010 }}, American Rivers (December 11, 2008). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref> Proposals to use {{convert|155000000|USgal|L}} a day from the St. Johns, and another {{convert|100000000|USgal|L}} from the Ocklawaha River, for fresh water are controversial, prompting a private organization named St. Johns Riverkeeper to nominate it to the list of the Ten Most Endangered Rivers by an environmental watchdog group named [[American Rivers]]. In 2008, it was listed as #6,<ref>[http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041708/met_269111418.shtml St. Johns River Joins List of Most in Peril] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705162754/http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041708/met_269111418.shtml |date=July 5, 2008 }}, ''The Florida Times-Union'' (April 17, 2008). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref> which was met with approval from Jacksonville's newspaper, ''[[The Florida Times-Union]]'', and skepticism from the SJRWMD.<ref name="ball"/><ref>[http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041808/opl_269404251.shtml Endangered River 'Honor' is a Serious Warning Sign] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705133726/http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041808/opl_269404251.shtml |date=July 5, 2008 }}, ''The Florida Times-Union'' (April 18, 2008). Retrieved on July 19, 2009.</ref>
The St. Johns River is under consideration as an additional water source to meet growing public water needs. In 2008, the river's Water Management District undertook a Water Supply Impact Study of the proposed water withdrawals and asked the National Research Council to review science aspects of the study as it progressed. This resulted in a series of four reports that assessed the impact of water withdrawal on river level and flow, reviewed potential impacts on wetland ecosystems, and presented overall perspectives on the Water Management District study.<ref>[http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13314] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519050235/http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13314|date=May 19, 2012}}: Free National Research Council report PDF</ref> The National Research Council found that, overall, the District performed a competent job in relating predicted environmental responses, including their magnitude and general degree of uncertainty, to the proposed range of water withdrawals. However, the report noted that the District's final report should acknowledge such critical issues as include future sea-level rises, population growth, and urban development. Although the District predicted that changes in water management would increase water levels and flows that exceed the proposed surface water withdrawals, these predictions have high uncertainties.<ref name="dels.nas.edu">{{cite web |url=http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Review-Johns-River/13314 |title=Review of the St. Johns River Water Supply Impact Study: Final Report (2011) : Division on Earth and Life Studies |publisher=Dels.nas.edu |access-date=December 18, 2012 |archive-date=October 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008031208/http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Review-Johns-River/13314 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The report also noted concerns about the District's conclusion that the water withdrawals will have few deleterious ecological effects. This conclusion was based on the model findings that increased flows from upper basin projects and from changes in land use (increases in impervious areas) largely compensated for the impacts of water withdrawals on water flows and levels. Although the upper basin projects are positive insofar as they will return land to the basin (and water to the river), the same cannot be said about increased [[urban runoff]], the poor quality of which is well known.<ref name="dels.nas.edu"/>
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