View source for Spondylus

{{Short description|Genus of molluscs}}
{{For|the suffix "-spondylus" as used in taxonomy|List of commonly used taxonomic affixes}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|235.0|0|[[Triassic]] - Recent}}
| image = Spondylus.jpg
| image_alt = A shell of "Spondylus regius"
| image_caption = A [[mollusc shell|shell]] of ''[[Spondylus regius]]''
| display_parents = 2
| parent_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1826
| taxon = Spondylus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref>Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius: Holmiae. ii, 824 pp., available online at http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/3/mode/1up</ref>
| synonyms = 
*''Carallospondylus'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
* † ''Dianchora'' <small>J. Sowerby, 1815</small>
*''Eleutherospondylos'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
*''Eltopera'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
*''Lanilda'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Spondylus (Corallospondylus)'' <small>Monterosato, 1917</small>
* ''Spondylus (Eleutherospondylos)'' <small>Dunker, 1882</small>
* ''Spondylus (Eltopera)'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Spondylus (Lanilda)'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Spondylus (Rimaespondylus)'' <small>Damarco, 2015</small> (unavailable name: no type species designated)
* Spon''dylus (Sponvola)'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
* ''Sponvola'' <small>Iredale, 1939</small>
|synonyms_ref = 
|type_species = ''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]''
|type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = [[#Species|See text]]
}}

'''''Spondylus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[bivalve]] [[mollusc]]s, the only genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Spondylidae'''.<ref name=WoRMS>MolluscaBase (2019). MolluscaBase. Spondylus Linnaeus, 1758. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138518 on 2019-03-04</ref> They are known in English as '''spiny oysters''' or '''thorny oysters''' (although they are not, in fact, [[true oysters]], but are related to scallops).

== Description ==
[[Image:Spondylus varius.jpg|thumb|''[[Spondylus varius]]'' from [[Mayotte]] in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa]]
The many species of ''Spondylus'' vary considerably in appearance. They are grouped in the same superfamily as the [[scallop]]s.

They are not closely related to true oysters (family [[Ostreidae]]); however, they do share some habits such as cementing themselves to rocks rather than attaching themselves by a [[byssus]]. The two halves of their shells are joined with a ball-and-socket type of hinge, rather than with a toothed hinge as is more common in other bivalves. They also still retain vestigial anterior and posterior ''auricles'' ("ears", triangular shell flaps) along the hinge line, a characteristic feature of scallops, although not of oysters.

As is the case in all scallops, ''Spondylus'' spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of their [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]], and they have relatively well-developed [[nervous system]]s. Their nervous [[Ganglion|ganglia]] are concentrated in the [[viscera]]l region, with recognisable [[Midbrain#Corpora quadrigemina|optic lobes]] connected to the eyes.

== Evolutionary history ==
The genus ''Spondylus'' appeared in the [[Mesozoic era]], and is known in the fossil records from the [[Triassic]] Cassian beds in Italy (235 to 232 million years ago) onward. Approximately 40 extinct species are known.<ref name=AA>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=17044|title=Fossilworks: Spondylus|website=fossilworks.org|access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Spondylidae - Spondylus crassicosta.JPG|thumb|180px|left|Fossil valve of ''Spondylus crassicosta'' from the [[Pliocene]] of Italy]]

Fossils of these molluscs may be found in fossiliferous marine strata all over the world. For example, they are present in [[Cretaceous|Cretaceaous]] rocks in the [[Fort Worth Formation]] of [[Texas]], and in the Trent River Formation of [[Vancouver Island]], as well as in other parts of North America.<ref name =finsley>Finsley, Chalres. 1999. A Field Guide to the Fossils of Texas. Gulf Publishing. Lanham, Maryland. plate 55.</ref><ref name = ludvigsen>Ludvigsen, Rolf & Beard, Graham. 1997. West Coast Fossils: A Guide to the Ancient Life of Vancouver Island. pg. 104</ref>

== Distribution ==
Spiny oysters are found in all subtropical and (especially) tropical seas, usually close to the coasts.

== Ecology ==
''Spondylus'' are [[filter feeder]]s. The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, with [[Ostreidae|true oysters]] and [[Chamidae|jewel boxes]]. Like the latter, they are protected by spines and a layer of [[epibiont]]s and, like the former, they can produce [[pearls]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=WingYan Ho|first1=Joyce|last2=Zhou|first2=Chunhui|title=Natural Pearls Reportedly from a Spondylus Species ("Thorny" Oyster)|url=https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2014-labnotes-natural-pearls-spondylus-species|website=GIA|publisher=Gemological Institute of America|access-date=24 February 2018}}</ref> The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others, (particularly S. spinosus) however, easily adapt to manufactured structures such as boats, pipes, and docks thereby becoming significant [[invasive species]]. Often other species are found attached to the shells of other species, perhaps the most common being found attached to the genus [[Malleus (bivalve)|Malleus]].

== Uses ==
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence indicates that people in [[Neolithic]] [[Europe]] were trading the shells of ''S. gaederopus'' to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová">{{cite journal |last1=Gardelková-Vrtelová |first1=Anna |last2=Golej |first2= Marián |date=2013 |title=The necklace from the Strážnice site in the Hodonín district (Czech Republic). A contribution on the subject of Spondylus jewelry in the Neolithic |journal=Documenta Praehistorica |publisher=Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani |volume=40 |pages=265–277 |doi=10.4312/dp.40.21 |doi-access=free }}{{Open access}}</ref> The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová" /> The shells were harvested from the [[Aegean Sea]], but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the [[LBK]] and [[Lengyel culture]]s, ''Spondylus'' shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová" /> Significant finds of jewelry made from ''Spondylus'' shells were made at the [[Varna Necropolis]]. During the late Neolithic the use of ''Spondylus'' in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children.<ref name="Gardelková-Vrtelová"/>
[[File:Diorama (detalle). Vestimenta de cuentas de concha spondylus. La Florida, Quito, Ecuador.jpg|thumb|263x263px|Pre-Columbian clothing made of Spondylus shell beads, La Florida archaeological site ([[Quito]], Ecuador)]]
''S. crassisquama'' is found off the coast of [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]] and has been important to [[Andean]] peoples since [[pre-Columbian]] times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddess [[Pachamama]] and as currency.<ref>Carter, Benjamin. "Spondylus in South American Prehistory" in ''Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches.'' Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR International Series 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63-89.</ref> In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in ''Spondylus'' shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day [[Mexico]] and as far south as the central [[Andes]].<ref>Shimada, Izumi. “Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E-C.E. 600). The Cambridge History of the Native People of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999: 350-517, esp. "Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections", pp. 430-436.</ref> The [[Moche culture|Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used ''Spondylus'' shells in their art and depicted ''Spondylus'' in effigy pots.<ref>Katherine Berrin and Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> Spondylus also were harvested from the [[Gulf of California]] and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.

''Spondylus'' shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Political Economy, Ethnogenesis, and Language Dispersals in the Prehispanic Andes: A World-System Perspective |journal=American Anthropologist}}</ref>

The use of ''Spondylus'' shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Negotiated Subjugation: Maritime Trade and the Incorporation of Chincha Into the Inca Empire |journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archeology}}</ref> This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Alexander J.|date=2001|title=The Dynamics of Pre-Columbian Spondylus Trade across the South American Central Pacific Coast|journal=Florida Atlantic University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing|via=ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global|url=https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619010259/https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A9706/datastream/OBJ/download/dynamics_of_pre-Columbian_Spondylus_trade_across_the_South_American_Central_Pacific_Coast.pdf |archive-date=2020-06-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> These modes of trade dictate the way that the ''Spondylus'' shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.

The value of ''Spondylus shells'' in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for ''Spondylus'' shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Waves of Influence: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America}}</ref>

Even today, there are collectors of ''Spondylus'' shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially ''S. americanus'') sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.

''S. limbatus'' was commonly ground for mortar in Central America, giving raise to its junior synonym, "''S. calcifer"''.

''Spondylus'' is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or "callus", which is a high-value foodstuff.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lodeiros |first1=César |last2=Soria |first2=Gaspar |last3=Valentich-Scott |first3=Paul |last4=Munguía-Vega |first4=Adrián |last5=Cabrera |first5=Jonathan Santana |last6=Cudney-Bueno |first6=Richard |last7=Loor |first7=Alfredo |last8=Márquez |first8=Adrian |last9=Sonnenholzner |first9=Stanislaus |title=Spondylids of Eastern Pacific Ocean |journal=Journal of Shellfish Research |date=August 2016 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=279–293 |doi=10.2983/035.035.0203|doi-access=free |url=https://accedacris.ulpgc.es/jspui/bitstream/10553/42078/2/Spondylids_Eastern_Pacific_Ocean.pdf }}</ref> Some Mediterranean species are edible and are commonly consumed, with ''S. gaederopus'' in particular being popular in [[Sardinia]]. Tropical species, however, tend to bioaccumulate [[Decarbamoylsaxitoxin|saxitoxin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Montojo|first1=U.M.|last2=Sakamoto|first2=S.|last3=Cayme|first3=M.F.|last4=Gatdula|first4=N.C.|last5=Furio|first5=E.F.|last6=Relox|first6=J.R.|last7=Kodama|first7=M.|title=Remarkable difference in toxin accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins among bivalve species exposed to Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum bloom in Masinloc bay, Philippines|journal=Toxicon|date=2006|volume=48|issue=1|pages=85–92|doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.014|pmid=16777162|s2cid=26090723 }}</ref>
The Romans ate Spondylus species. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a dinner party in 63 BCE in which there were two courses of ''Spondylus''.

=== Aztec culture ===
In addition to its significance in the [[pre-Columbian]] times, ''Spondylus crassiquama'' was also an important part of [[Aztec]] culture. ''Spondylus'' uses amongst Aztecs included: art, jewelry, statues, religious motifs, and at times, as currency. One example of ''Spondylus'' used in art is the double-headed serpent that may be seen amongst images on the right of the page. [[File:Double Headed Turquoise Serpent.jpg|thumb|Double-headed serpent made of Spondylus shell]]

As stated above, ''Spondylus'' held immense religious value amongst [[Aztec]] culture [[pre-columbian]] times and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples’, ''Spondylus'' was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain ''Spondylus'' groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of ''Spondylus'' to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of ''Spondylus'' being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in [[Aztec]] culture [http://sitios.espam.edu.ec/sigloxxi/Ponencias/VII/ponencias/53.pdf].

[[File:Aztec Mask.png|thumb|Mask made of Spondylus and other materials]]
''Spondylus'' had several key uses in [[pre-Columbian]] Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of ''Spondylus'', that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful ''Spondylus'' pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Spondylus in Precolumbian, Historic and Contemporary Southwest Jewelry |url=https://www.academia.edu/38298911 |first=Robert |last=Liu |magazine=[[Ornament (magazine)|Ornament]] |pages=38–44 |date=2005-03-28 |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref>

== Species ==
Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,<ref>{{cite book|last1=WoRMS Editorial Board|title=Spondylus|chapter-url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138518|website=World Register of Marine Species|access-date=19 February 2018|doi=10.14284/170|year=2017|type=Data Set|publisher=VLIZ|chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species <!-- one is S. ostreoides, the other is the Caspian one; bear with me, my copy of Lamprell is 800 km away, right now --> are known from a single specimen, while a third (S. gravis)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lamprell|first1=Kevin L.|title=Recent Spondylus species from the Middle East and adjacent regions, with the description of two new species|journal=Vita Marina|date=May 1998|volume=45|issue=1–2|page=58}}</ref> was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (S. regius) has a different shell when it grows in deep water.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Poppe|first1=Guido T.|title=Spondylus regius, deep water|url=https://www.conchology.be/?t=66&family=SPONDYLIDAE&species=Spondylus%20regius%20DEEP%20WATER|website=Shell Encyclopedia|access-date=19 February 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793).jpg|thumb|Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793) Tenerife, Canary Islands]]
[[File:Spondylus crassisquama.jpg|thumb|Pacific thorny oyster, ''S. crassisquama'' Lamarck, 1819, from the [[Gulf of California]], Mexico]]
[[Image:SpondylusPliocene.jpg|thumb|The interior of two fossil valves of ''Spondylus'' from the [[Pliocene]] of [[Cyprus]]]]
[[File:WLA hmns Spondylus linguaefelis 2.jpg|thumb|Cat's tongue oyster, ''Spondylus linguaefelis'' Sowerby, 1847, from [[Hawaii]]]]
[[Image:Thorny oyster.jpg|right|thumb|A view of the colorful [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] edges of a live thorny oyster from [[East Timor]]: The eyes may be seen on the fringe between the mantle and the shell.]]
[[File:SpondylusArticulated.jpg|thumb| A fossil ''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]'' from the [[Pliocene]] of [[Cyprus]]]]
[[File:Shell Spondylus visayensis.jpg|thumb|''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'']]
<ref name=WoRMS/>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} 
*''[[Spondylus americanus]]'' <small>[[Johann Hermann|Hermann]], 1781</small> - Atlantic thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus anacanthus]]'' <small>[[John Mawe|Mawe]], 1823</small> - nude thorny oyster
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aonis]]'' <small>d'Orbigny, 1850</small>
*''[[Spondylus asiaticus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
*''[[Spondylus asperrimus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus aucklandicus]]'' <small>P. Marshall, 1918</small>
*''[[Spondylus avramsingeri]]'' <small>Kovalis, 2010</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus bostrychites]]'' <small>Guppy, 1867</small>
*''[[Spondylus butleri]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus candidus]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus clarksoni]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
*''[[Spondylus concavus]]'' <small>[[Gérard Paul Deshayes|Deshayes]] in Maillard, 1863</small>
*''[[Spondylus crassisquama]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus croceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus darwini]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1882</small>
*''[[Spondylus deforgesi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus depressus]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
*''[[Spondylus eastae]]'' <small>Lamprell, 1992</small>
*''[[Spondylus echinatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus erectospinosus]]'' <small>Habe, 1973</small>
*''[[Spondylus exiguus]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus exilis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1895</small>
*''[[Spondylus fauroti]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]], 1888</small>
*''[[Spondylus foliaceus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus gaederopus]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> - European thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus gloriandus]]'' <small>[[James Cosmo Melvill (naturalist)|Melvill]] & Standen, 1907</small>
*''[[Spondylus gloriosus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus granulosus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus gravis]]'' <small>Fulton, 1915</small>
*''[[Spondylus groschi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Kilburn, 1995</small>
*{{Extinct}}''[[Spondylus guadalupae]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Roemer|Roemer]], 1849</small><ref>Roemer, F. (1849). Texas : mit besonderer Rücksicht auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen Verhältnisse des Landes nach eigener Beobachtung. A. Marcus </ref>
*''[[Spondylus gussonii]]'' <small>[[Oronzio Gabriele Costa|O. G. Costa]], 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus heidkeae]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus imperialis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1844</small>
* ''[[Spondylus jamarci]]'' <small>Okutani, 1983</small>
*''[[Spondylus Lamarckii]]'' <small>[[Jean-Charles Chenu|Chenu]], 1845</small>
*''[[Spondylus layardi]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus leucacanthus]]'' <small>[[William Broderip|Broderip]], 1833</small>
*''[[Spondylus limbatus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus linguafelis]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus maestratii]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus marinensis]]'' <small>Cossignani & Allary, 2018</small>
*''[[Spondylus mimus]]'' <small>Dall, [[Paul Bartsch|Bartsch]] & [[Harald A. Rehder|Rehder]], 1938</small>
*''[[Spondylus morrisoni]]'' <small>Damarco, 2015</small>
*''[[Spondylus multimuricatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus multisetosus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus multistriatus]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus nicobaricus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus occidens]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
*''[[Spondylus ocellatus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus orstomi]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus ostreoides]]'' <small>[[Edgar Albert Smith|E. A. Smith]], 1885</small>
*''[[Spondylus pratii]]'' <small>Parth, 1990</small>
*''[[Spondylus proneri]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
* ''[[Spondylus pseudogaederopus]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* ''[[Spondylus purpurascens]]'' <small>T. Cossignani, 2022</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus radula]]'' <small>Lamarck, 1806</small>
*''[[Spondylus raoulensis]]'' <small>[[Walter Oliver|W. R. B. Oliver]], 1915</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus rarispina]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1830</small>
*''[[Spondylus reesianus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]]I, 1903</small>
*''[[Spondylus regius]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]</small> - regal thorny oyster
*''[[Spondylus rippingalei]]'' <small>Lamprell & Healy, 2001</small>
*''[[Spondylus rubicundus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus senegalensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus sinensis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus spinosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus squamosus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenellus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuis]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuispinosus]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small>
*''[[Spondylus tenuitas]]'' <small>Garrard, 1966</small>
*''[[Spondylus variegatus]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus varius]]'' <small>G. B. Sowerby I, 1827</small>
* † ''[[Spondylus vaudini]]'' <small>Deshayes, 1858</small>
*''[[Spondylus versicolor]]'' <small>[[Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers|Schreibers]], 1793</small>
*''[[Spondylus victoriae]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1860</small>
*''[[Spondylus violacescens]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
*''[[Spondylus virgineus]]'' <small>[[Lovell Augustus Reeve|Reeve]], 1856</small>
*''[[Spondylus visayensis]]'' <small>[[Guido Poppe|Poppe]] & Tagaro, 2010</small>
*''[[Spondylus zonalis]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small>
{{div col end}}

*''[[Spondylus echinus]]'' <small>[[Félix Pierre Jousseaume|Jousseaume]] in Lamy, 1927</small> ([[taxon inquirendum]])
*''[[Spondylus imbricatus]]'' <small>Perry, 1811</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
*''[[Spondylus microlepos]]'' <small>[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]], 1819</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
*''[[Spondylus unicolor]]'' <small>[[George Brettingham Sowerby II|G. B. Sowerby II]], 1847</small> ([[nomen dubium]])
See also: [[Tikod amo]], an undescribed species

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.conchology.be/?t=65&family=SPONDYLIDAE Spondylidae] examples of the shells of most extant species
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120203010849/http://www.nmr-pics.nl/Spondylidae/album/index.html shells at the Rotterdam Natural History Museum]
* [http://www.unizd.hr/Portals/39/papers/Abstracts_Book.pdf Session Abstracts] on ''Spondylus'' research at the 13th Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists at Zadar, Croatia, September 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031231033508/http://nighthawk.tricity.wsu.edu/museum/ArcherdShellCollection/Bivalvia/Spondylidae.html Information about ''Spondylus''] from the website of the Gladys Archerd Shell Collection at Washington State University Tri-Cities Natural History Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070226163542/http://home.earthlink.net/~aydinslibrary/MalacGp09.pdf Article on "notched" ''Spondylus''] Neolithic artifacts in Europe

== Bibliography ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spondylus.wordpress.com/ A full and constantly updated bibliography] on ''Spondylus'' spp. in Aegean, Balkan, European and American contexts
* Lamprell, Kevin L.: ''Spondylus: Spiny Oyster Shells of the World'', E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1987 {{ISBN|90-04-08329-4}}

{{Oysters}}
{{Jewellery}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q649156|from2=Q18549941}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Spondylidae]]
[[Category:Bivalve genera]]
[[Category:Extant Triassic first appearances]]