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{{Short description|Category of movement disorders}}
{{distinguish|Dyskinetic cerebral palsy}}
{{distinguish|Dyskinetic cerebral palsy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}


'''Dyskinesia''' refers to a category of [[movement disorder]]s that are characterized by involuntary muscle movements,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dyskinesia (Health Article)|url=http://health.yahoo.net/galecontent/dyskinesia|publisher=Yahoo! Health|access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> including movements similar to [[tic]]s or [[Choreia (disease)|chorea]] and diminished voluntary movements.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|three/000033093|dyskinesia}}</ref> Dyskinesia can be anything from a slight tremor of the hands to an uncontrollable movement of the upper body or lower extremities. Discoordination can also occur internally especially with the respiratory muscles and it often goes unrecognized.{{sfn|Healy|2008|p=29-30}} Dyskinesia is a [[symptom]] of several [[medical disorder]]s that are distinguished by their underlying causes.
{{Infobox disease|
Name = Dyskinesia |
Image = |
Caption = |
Field = [[Neurology]]|
DiseasesDB = 17912 |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|24|9|g|20}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|333.8}} |
ICDO = |
OMIM = |
MedlinePlus = |
eMedicineSubj = |
eMedicineTopic = |
MeshID = D020820 |
}}

'''Dyskinesia''' refers to a category of [[movement disorder]]s that are characterized by involuntary muscle movements,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dyskinesia (Health Article)|url=http://health.yahoo.net/galecontent/dyskinesia|publisher=Yahoo! Health|accessdate=25 January 2014}}</ref> including movements similar to [[tic]]s or [[Choreia (disease)|chorea]] and diminished voluntary movements.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|three/000033093|dyskinesia}}</ref> Dyskinesia can be anything from a slight tremor of the hands to an uncontrollable movement of the upper body or lower extremities. Discoordination can also occur internally especially with the respiratory muscles and it often goes unrecognized.{{sfn|Healy|2008|p=29-30}} Dyskinesia is a [[symptom]] of several [[medical disorder]]s that are distinguished by their underlying cause.


==Types==
==Types==

===Medication-induced dyskinesias===
===Medication-induced dyskinesias===
Acute [[dystonia]] is a sustained muscle contraction that sometimes appears soon after administration of [[antipsychotic]] medications.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia">{{cite book|last1=al.]|first1=edited by Brian K. Alldredge ... [et|title=Applied therapeutics : the clinical use of drugs.|date=2013|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-1609137137|page=1937|edition=10th}}</ref> Any muscle in the body may be affected, including the jaw, tongue, throat, arms, or legs. When the throat muscles are involved, this type of dystonia is called an acute [[laryngospasm]] and is a medical emergency because it can impair breathing.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia" /> Older antipsychotics such as [[Haloperidol]] or [[Fluphenazine]] are more likely to cause acute dystonia than newer agents. Giving high doses of antipsychotics by injection also increases the risk of developing acute dystonia.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia" />
Acute [[dystonia]] is a sustained muscle contraction that sometimes appears soon after administration of [[antipsychotic]] medications.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia">{{cite book|editor1=Brian K. Alldredge|display-editors=etal|title=Applied therapeutics : the clinical use of drugs.|date=2013|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-1609137137|page=1937|edition=10th}}</ref> Any muscle in the body may be affected, including the jaw, tongue, throat, arms, or legs. When the throat muscles are involved, this type of dystonia is called an acute [[laryngospasm]] and is a medical emergency because it can impair breathing.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia" /> Older antipsychotics such as [[haloperidol]] or [[fluphenazine]] are more likely to cause acute dystonia than newer agents. Giving high doses of antipsychotics by injection also increases the risk of developing acute dystonia.<ref name="Applied Therapeutics Acute Dystonia" />


[[Methamphetamine]], other [[amphetamines]] and [[dopaminergic]] [[stimulants]] including [[cocaine]] and [[pemoline]] can produce [[choreoathetoid]] dyskinesias; the prevalence, time-frame and [[prognosis]] are not well established. Amphetamines also cause a dramatic increase in choreoathetoid symptoms in patients with underlying [[chorea]] such as [[Sydenham's chorea|Sydenham's]], [[Huntington's disease|Huntington's]], and [[lupus]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rusinyak|first1=Daniel E.|title=Neurologic manifestations of chronic methamphetamine abuse|journal=Neurologic Clinics|date=2011|volume=29|issue=3|pages=641–655|doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2011.05.004|pmc=3148451|pmid=21803215}}</ref> Long-term use of amphetamines may increase the risk of [[Parkinson's disease|Parkinson's disease (PD)]]: in one [[retrospective study]] with over 40,000 participants it was concluded that amphetamine abusers generally had a 200% higher chance of developing PD versus those with no history of abuse; the risk was much higher in women, almost 400%.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hanson|first1=Glen R.|last2=Fleckenstein|first2=Annette E.|last3=Curtin|first3=Kare|title=Dependence on amphetamines increases Parkinson's disease: Effect of gender|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|date=1 January 2015|volume=146|pages=e134–e135|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.284|url=http://www.drugandalcoholdependence.com/article/S0376-8716(14)01346-5/fulltext|access-date=28 November 2017}}</ref> There remains some controversy as of 2017.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kish|first1=Stephen J.|last2=Boileau|first2=Isabelle|last3=Callaghan|first3=Russell C.|last4=Tong|first4=Junchao|title=Brain dopamine neurone 'damage': methamphetamine users vs. Parkinson's disease – a critical assessment of the evidence|journal=European Journal of Neuroscience|date=2017|volume=45|issue=1|pages=58–66|doi=10.1111/ejn.13363|pmid=27519465|pmc=5209286}}</ref>{{Relevance|date=September 2023}}
[[Levodopa-induced dyskinesia]] (LID) is evident in patients with [[Parkinson's disease]] who have been on [[levodopa]] ({{L-DOPA}}) for prolonged periods of time. LID commonly first appears in the foot, on the most affected side of the body. There are three main types that can be classified on the basis of their course and clinical presentation following an oral dose of {{L-DOPA}}:<ref name="Fabbrini"/><ref name="Thanvi"/>


[[Levodopa-induced dyskinesia]] (LID) is evident in patients with Parkinson's disease who have been on [[levodopa]] ({{L-DOPA}}) for prolonged periods of time. LID commonly first appears in the foot, on the most affected side of the body. There are three main types that can be classified on the basis of their course and clinical presentation following an oral dose of {{L-DOPA}}:<ref name="Fabbrini"/><ref name="Thanvi"/>
* '''Off-period dystonia''' – correlated to the [[akinesia]] that occurs before the full effect of {{L-DOPA}} sets in, when the plasma levels of {{L-DOPA}} are low. In general, it occurs as painful spasms in the foot. Patients respond to {{L-DOPA}} therapy.<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/>
* '''Off-period dystonia''' – correlated to the [[akinesia]] that occurs before the full effect of {{L-DOPA}} sets in, when the plasma levels of {{L-DOPA}} are low. In general, it occurs as painful spasms in the foot. Patients respond to {{L-DOPA}} therapy.<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/>
* '''Diphasic dyskinesia''' – occurs when [[blood plasma|plasma]] {{L-DOPA}} levels are rising or falling. This form occurs primarily in the lower limbs (though they can happen elsewhere) and is usually [[dystonic]] (characterized by apparent rigidity within muscles or groups thereof) or [[wikt:ballistic|ballistic]] (characterized by involuntary movement of muscles) and will not respond to {{L-DOPA}} dosage reductions.<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/>
* '''Peak-dose dyskinesia''' – the most common form of levodopa-induced dyskinesia; it correlates with the plateau {{L-DOPA}} plasma level. This type usually involves the upper limbs more (but could also affect the head, trunk and respiratory muscles), is choreic (of chorea), and less disabling. Patients will respond to {{L-DOPA}} reduction but may be accompanied by deterioration of [[parkinsonism]].<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/> Peak-dose {{L-DOPA}}-induced dyskinesia has {{As of|2013|07|alt=recently}} been suggested to be associated with cortical dysregulation of dopamine signaling.<ref name="Tamte"/>


===Chronic or tardive===
* '''Diphasic dyskinesia''' – occurs when [[blood plasma|plasma]] L-DOPA levels are rising or falling. This form occurs primarily in the lower limbs (though they can happen elsewhere) and is usually [[dystonic]] (characterized by apparent rigidity within muscles or groups thereof) or [[wikt:ballistic|ballistic]] (characterized by involuntary movement of muscles) and will not respond to {{L-DOPA}} dosage reductions.<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/>
Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as [[tardive dyskinesia]], occurs after long-term treatment with an [[antipsychotic]] drug such as [[haloperidol]] (Haldol) or [[amoxapine]] (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue{{spaced ndash}} including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.{{sfn|Healy|2008|p=30–31}}


[[Rabbit syndrome]] is another type of chronic dyskinesia, while [[orofacial dyskinesia]] may be related to persistent replication of [[herpes simplex virus type 1]].<ref name="Gonazales" />
* '''Peak-dose dyskinesia''' – the most common form of levodopa-induced dyskinesia; it correlates with the plateau {{L-DOPA}} plasma level. This type usually involves the upper limbs more (but could also affect the head, trunk and respiratory muscles), is choreic (of chorea), and less disabling. Patients will respond to {{L-DOPA}} reduction but may be accompanied by deterioration of [[parkinsonism]].<ref name=Fabbrini/><ref name=Thanvi/> Peak-dose L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia has {{As of|2013|07|alt=recently}} been suggested to be associated with cortical dysregulation of dopamine signaling.<ref name="Tamte"/>

===Chronic/tardive===
Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as [[tardive dyskinesia]], occurs after long-term treatment with an [[antipsychotic]] drug such as [[haloperidol]] (Haldol) or [[amoxapine]] (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue{{spaced ndash}} including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.{{sfn|Healy|2008|p=30-31}}

[[Rabbit syndrome]] is another type of chronic dyskinesia, while [[orofacial dyskinesia]] may be related to persistent replication of [[Herpes simplex virus type 1]].<ref name="Gonazales" />


===Non-motor===
===Non-motor===
Two other types, [[primary ciliary dyskinesia]] and [[biliary dyskinesia]], are caused by specific kinds of ineffective movement of the body, and are not [[movement disorder]]s.
Two other types, [[primary ciliary dyskinesia]] and [[biliary dyskinesia]], are caused by specific kinds of ineffective movement of the body, and are not [[movement disorder]]s.


==Treatment==
Spastic thrusting of hip area can occur in [[Sodemytopic Parkinson's]].{{jargon-inline|date=November 2013}}
{{See also|Levodopa-induced dyskinesia#Treatment}}

Antidyskinetic drugs can be used to treat dyskinesia.<ref name="Pranzatelli1996">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pranzatelli MR | title = Antidyskinetic drug therapy for pediatric movement disorders | journal = J Child Neurol | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 355–369 | date = September 1996 | pmid = 8877602 | doi = 10.1177/088307389601100503 | url = }}</ref><ref name="ChaseOhKonitsiotis2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chase TN, Oh JD, Konitsiotis S | title = Antiparkinsonian and antidyskinetic activity of drugs targeting central glutamatergic mechanisms | journal = J Neurol | volume = 247 Suppl 2 | issue = | pages = II36–II42 | date = April 2000 | pmid = 10991664 | doi = 10.1007/pl00007759 | url = }}</ref><ref name="Rylander2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rylander D | title = The serotonin system: a potential target for anti-dyskinetic treatments and biomarker discovery | journal = Parkinsonism Relat Disord | volume = 18 Suppl 1 | issue = | pages = S126–S128 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22166409 | doi = 10.1016/S1353-8020(11)70039-6 | url = https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/2273752}}</ref> Certain [[anticonvulsant]]s can be used as antidyskinetic agents, among drugs acting at other [[biological target|target]]s.<ref name="Pranzatelli1996" /><ref name="Rylander2012" /> [[Amantadine]] is approved for treatment of [[levodopa-induced dyskinesia]].<ref name="KwonKwatraWang2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwon DK, Kwatra M, Wang J, Ko HS | title = Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia in Parkinson's Disease: Pathogenesis and Emerging Treatment Strategies | journal = Cells | volume = 11 | issue = 23 | date = November 2022 | page = 3736 | pmid = 36496996 | pmc = 9736114 | doi = 10.3390/cells11233736 | doi-access = free | url = }}</ref> [[Monoamine-depleting agents|Dopamine-depleting agent]]s like [[tetrabenazine]], [[deutetrabenazine]], and [[valbenazine]] are used to treat [[tardive dyskinesia]].<ref name="BashirJankovic2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bashir HH, Jankovic J | title = Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia | journal = Neurol Clin | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 379–396 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32279716 | doi = 10.1016/j.ncl.2020.01.004 | url = }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 47: Line 33:
* [[Akathisia]]
* [[Akathisia]]
* [[Akinesia]]
* [[Akinesia]]
* [[Antiparkinsonian]]
* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Hemiballismus]]
* [[Hemiballismus]]
* [[Management of Parkinson's disease#Medication|Medication management of Parkinson's disease]]
* [[Paroxysmal dyskinesia]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Schizophrenia]]
* [[Schizophrenia]]
Line 56: Line 43:


==References==
==References==
{{Research help|Med}}
{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=


<ref name="Fabbrini">
<ref name="Fabbrini">
{{cite journal |vauthors=Fabbrini G, Brotchie JM, Grandas F, Nomoto M, Goetz CG |title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesias |journal= Movement Disorders|date=April 2007 |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1379–89 |doi=10.1002/mds.21475 |pmid=17427940|s2cid=20926751 }}</ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Fabbrini G, Brotchie JM, Grandas F, Nomoto M, Goetz CG
|title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesias
|journal=Movement Disorders Society
|date=April 2007
|volume=22
|issue=10
|pages=1379–89
|doi=10.1002/mds.21475
|pmid=17427940
}}</ref>


<ref name="Tamte">
<ref name="Tamte">
{{cite journal |vauthors=Halje P, Tamtè M, Richter U, Mohammed M, Cenci MA, Petersson P |date=November 2012 |title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesia is strongly associated with resonant cortical oscillations |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=32 |issue=47 |pages=16541–51 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012 |pmid=23175810 |pmc=6621755 |url=}} {{open access}} {{link note|note=full free text}}</ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Halje P, Tamtè M, Richter U, Mohammed M, Cenci MA, Petersson P
|date=November 2012
|title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesia is strongly associated with resonant cortical oscillations
|journal=Journal of Neuroscience
|volume=32
|issue=47
|pages=16541–51
|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012
|pmid=23175810
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=23175810
|accessdate=30 November 2013
}} {{open access}} {{link note|note=full free text}}</ref>


<ref name=Thanvi>
<ref name=Thanvi>
{{cite journal |vauthors=Thanvi B, Lo N, Robinson T |title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease: clinical features, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment |journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal |date=June 2007 |volume=83 |issue=980 |pages=384–88 |doi=10.1136/pgmj.2006.054759 |pmid=17551069 |pmc=2600052}} {{open access}} {{link note|note=full free text}}</ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Thanvi B, Lo N, Robinson T
|title=Levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease: clinical features, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment
|journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal
|date=June 2007
|volume=83
|issue=980
|pages=384–88
|doi=10.1136/pgmj.2006.054759
|pmid=17551069
|pmc=2600052
|accessdate=30 November 2013
}} {{open access}} {{link note|note=full free text}}</ref>


<ref name="Gonazales">
<ref name="Gonazales">
{{cite journal |title=Postherpes simplex type 1 neuralgia simulating postherpetic neuralgia |journal=J Pain Symptom Manage |date=July 1992 |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=320–3 |pmid=1624816 |author=Gonzales GR |doi=10.1016/0885-3924(92)90065-p|doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{cite journal
|title=Postherpes simplex type 1 neuralgia simulating postherpetic neuralgia
|journal=J Pain Symptom Manage
|date=July 1992
|volume=7
|issue=5
|pages=320–3
|pmid=1624816
|author=Gonzales GR
|doi=10.1016/0885-3924(92)90065-p
}}</ref>


}}
}}


==Works cited==
==Works cited==
* {{cite book |first=David |last=Healy |title=Psychiatric Drugs Explained |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikTJViYMPIEC |year=2008 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-7020-2997-4}}
* {{cite book
|author=David Healy
|title=Psychiatric Drugs Explained
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ikTJViYMPIEC
|accessdate=16 December 2010
|date=3 December 2008
|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences
|isbn=978-0-7020-2997-4
}}


== External links ==
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 17912
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|24|9|g|20}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|333.8}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus =
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| MeshID = D020820
| SNOMED CT = 9748009
}}
{{CNS diseases of the nervous system}}
{{CNS diseases of the nervous system}}
{{Nervous and musculoskeletal system symptoms and signs}}
{{Nervous and musculoskeletal system symptoms and signs}}

Latest revision as of 07:03, 26 November 2024

Not to be confused with Dyskinetic cerebral palsy.

Dyskinesia refers to a category of movement disorders that are characterized by involuntary muscle movements,[1] including movements similar to tics or chorea and diminished voluntary movements.[2] Dyskinesia can be anything from a slight tremor of the hands to an uncontrollable movement of the upper body or lower extremities. Discoordination can also occur internally especially with the respiratory muscles and it often goes unrecognized.[3] Dyskinesia is a symptom of several medical disorders that are distinguished by their underlying causes.

Types

[edit]

Medication-induced dyskinesias

[edit]

Acute dystonia is a sustained muscle contraction that sometimes appears soon after administration of antipsychotic medications.[4] Any muscle in the body may be affected, including the jaw, tongue, throat, arms, or legs. When the throat muscles are involved, this type of dystonia is called an acute laryngospasm and is a medical emergency because it can impair breathing.[4] Older antipsychotics such as haloperidol or fluphenazine are more likely to cause acute dystonia than newer agents. Giving high doses of antipsychotics by injection also increases the risk of developing acute dystonia.[4]

Methamphetamine, other amphetamines and dopaminergic stimulants including cocaine and pemoline can produce choreoathetoid dyskinesias; the prevalence, time-frame and prognosis are not well established. Amphetamines also cause a dramatic increase in choreoathetoid symptoms in patients with underlying chorea such as Sydenham's, Huntington's, and lupus.[5] Long-term use of amphetamines may increase the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD): in one retrospective study with over 40,000 participants it was concluded that amphetamine abusers generally had a 200% higher chance of developing PD versus those with no history of abuse; the risk was much higher in women, almost 400%.[6] There remains some controversy as of 2017.[7][relevant?]

Levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) is evident in patients with Parkinson's disease who have been on levodopa (L‑DOPA) for prolonged periods of time. LID commonly first appears in the foot, on the most affected side of the body. There are three main types that can be classified on the basis of their course and clinical presentation following an oral dose of L‑DOPA:[8][9]

  • Off-period dystonia – correlated to the akinesia that occurs before the full effect of L‑DOPA sets in, when the plasma levels of L‑DOPA are low. In general, it occurs as painful spasms in the foot. Patients respond to L‑DOPA therapy.[8][9]
  • Diphasic dyskinesia – occurs when plasma L‑DOPA levels are rising or falling. This form occurs primarily in the lower limbs (though they can happen elsewhere) and is usually dystonic (characterized by apparent rigidity within muscles or groups thereof) or ballistic (characterized by involuntary movement of muscles) and will not respond to L‑DOPA dosage reductions.[8][9]
  • Peak-dose dyskinesia – the most common form of levodopa-induced dyskinesia; it correlates with the plateau L‑DOPA plasma level. This type usually involves the upper limbs more (but could also affect the head, trunk and respiratory muscles), is choreic (of chorea), and less disabling. Patients will respond to L‑DOPA reduction but may be accompanied by deterioration of parkinsonism.[8][9] Peak-dose L‑DOPA-induced dyskinesia has recently been suggested to be associated with cortical dysregulation of dopamine signaling.[10]

Chronic or tardive

[edit]

Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as tardive dyskinesia, occurs after long-term treatment with an antipsychotic drug such as haloperidol (Haldol) or amoxapine (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue – including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.[11]

Rabbit syndrome is another type of chronic dyskinesia, while orofacial dyskinesia may be related to persistent replication of herpes simplex virus type 1.[12]

Non-motor

[edit]

Two other types, primary ciliary dyskinesia and biliary dyskinesia, are caused by specific kinds of ineffective movement of the body, and are not movement disorders.

Treatment

[edit]
See also: Levodopa-induced dyskinesia § Treatment

Antidyskinetic drugs can be used to treat dyskinesia.[13][14][15] Certain anticonvulsants can be used as antidyskinetic agents, among drugs acting at other targets.[13][15] Amantadine is approved for treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesia.[16] Dopamine-depleting agents like tetrabenazine, deutetrabenazine, and valbenazine are used to treat tardive dyskinesia.[17]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Dyskinesia (Health Article)". Yahoo! Health. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  2. ^ "dyskinesia" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  3. ^ Healy 2008, p. 29-30.
  4. ^ a b c Brian K. Alldredge; et al., eds. (2013). Applied therapeutics : the clinical use of drugs (10th ed.). Baltimore: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1937. ISBN 978-1609137137.
  5. ^ Rusinyak, Daniel E. (2011). "Neurologic manifestations of chronic methamphetamine abuse". Neurologic Clinics. 29 (3): 641–655. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2011.05.004. PMC 3148451. PMID 21803215.
  6. ^ Hanson, Glen R.; Fleckenstein, Annette E.; Curtin, Kare (1 January 2015). "Dependence on amphetamines increases Parkinson's disease: Effect of gender". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 146: e134–e135. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.284. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
  7. ^ Kish, Stephen J.; Boileau, Isabelle; Callaghan, Russell C.; Tong, Junchao (2017). "Brain dopamine neurone 'damage': methamphetamine users vs. Parkinson's disease – a critical assessment of the evidence". European Journal of Neuroscience. 45 (1): 58–66. doi:10.1111/ejn.13363. PMC 5209286. PMID 27519465.
  8. ^ a b c d Fabbrini G, Brotchie JM, Grandas F, Nomoto M, Goetz CG (April 2007). "Levodopa-induced dyskinesias". Movement Disorders. 22 (10): 1379–89. doi:10.1002/mds.21475. PMID 17427940. S2CID 20926751.
  9. ^ a b c d Thanvi B, Lo N, Robinson T (June 2007). "Levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease: clinical features, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 83 (980): 384–88. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2006.054759. PMC 2600052. PMID 17551069. Open access icon (full free text)
  10. ^ Halje P, Tamtè M, Richter U, Mohammed M, Cenci MA, Petersson P (November 2012). "Levodopa-induced dyskinesia is strongly associated with resonant cortical oscillations". Journal of Neuroscience. 32 (47): 16541–51. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012. PMC 6621755. PMID 23175810. Open access icon (full free text)
  11. ^ Healy 2008, p. 30–31.
  12. ^ Gonzales GR (July 1992). "Postherpes simplex type 1 neuralgia simulating postherpetic neuralgia". J Pain Symptom Manage. 7 (5): 320–3. doi:10.1016/0885-3924(92)90065-p. PMID 1624816.
  13. ^ a b Pranzatelli MR (September 1996). "Antidyskinetic drug therapy for pediatric movement disorders". J Child Neurol. 11 (5): 355–369. doi:10.1177/088307389601100503. PMID 8877602.
  14. ^ Chase TN, Oh JD, Konitsiotis S (April 2000). "Antiparkinsonian and antidyskinetic activity of drugs targeting central glutamatergic mechanisms". J Neurol. 247 Suppl 2: II36–II42. doi:10.1007/pl00007759. PMID 10991664.
  15. ^ a b Rylander D (January 2012). "The serotonin system: a potential target for anti-dyskinetic treatments and biomarker discovery". Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 18 Suppl 1: S126–S128. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(11)70039-6. PMID 22166409.
  16. ^ Kwon DK, Kwatra M, Wang J, Ko HS (November 2022). "Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia in Parkinson's Disease: Pathogenesis and Emerging Treatment Strategies". Cells. 11 (23): 3736. doi:10.3390/cells11233736. PMC 9736114. PMID 36496996.
  17. ^ Bashir HH, Jankovic J (May 2020). "Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia". Neurol Clin. 38 (2): 379–396. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2020.01.004. PMID 32279716.

Works cited

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