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16 Van Der Waals 2

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Il 0% ha trovato utile questo documento (0 voti)
34 visualizzazioni21 pagine

16 Van Der Waals 2

Caricato da

annese.2061981
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Per noi i diritti sui contenuti sono una cosa seria. Se sospetti che questo contenuto sia tuo, rivendicalo qui.
Formati disponibili
Scarica in formato PDF, TXT o leggi online su Scribd

“Aldo Pontremoli”

I gas reali: l’equazione di van der Waals — 2


Termodinamica - Corso B
Stefano Olivares
Quantum Technology Lab
Dipartimento di Fisica “Aldo Pontremoli”
Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy

[email protected]
http://users.unimi.it/aqm

https://solivarest.ariel.ctu.unimi.it

Termodinamica — a.a. 2019-2020


Gas reali
Per un gas perfetto:

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pid V = nRT
Questa equazione vale anche per i gas reali in presenza di alte temperature e
basse pressioni.

Tuttavia, in prossimità della liquefazione del gas, l’equazione cessa di valere…


L’equazione di van der Waals
L’equazione di van der Waals, che ora introdurremo,
si accorda meglio con i dati sperimentali.

Per ottenere l’equazione si considerano:

volume finito forze attrattive


delle molecole del gas tra molecole del gas

Johannes van der Waals

I centri delle molecole non possono


venire a contatto: il volume effettivo è
V !V
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nb ridotto di una quantità proporzionale
al numero di moli.

nRT
Il parametro b, caratteristico del gas, è detto covolume. pid =
<latexit sha1_base64="ZerlExd/TLPNUWa9mxkH8E/qXvA=">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</latexit>
V nb
L’equazione di van der Waals

forze attrattive
tra molecole del gas

Ogni molecola risente


dell’attrazione delle altre.

In prossimità della parete si ha una Johannes van der Waals


risultante diretta verso l’interno.

n2 a Rispetto alla pressione di un gas


pid ! p = pid perfetto, la pressione di quello
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sha1_base64="V36ClDt285dwAyQ1jrivBiecAt0=">AAACD3icbZDNSgMxFIXv1L9aq45u3QSL4MYy7UZdCIIblxWcttBpSybNtKGZTEgyQhnmPdz4Km5cqLhz59uY/ixq64HA4ZyEm/uFkjNtPO/HKWxsbm3vFHdLe+X9g0P3qNzUSaoI9UnCE9UOsaacCeobZjhtS0VxHHLaCsd30771RJVmiXg0E0m7MR4KFjGCjY36bl32s0DFiA1yFJgESXSDlqILFEQKkwyJXh3hPGv26nnfrXhVbya0bmoLU4GFGn33OxgkJI2pMIRjrTs1T5puhpVhhNO8FKSaSkzGeEg71gocU93NZrvl6MwmAxQlyh5h0CxdfpHhWOtJHNqbMTYjvdpNw/+6Tmqiq27GhEwNFWQ+KEo5shCmoNCAKUoMn1iDiWL2r4iMsIVhLM6ShVBbXXnd+PXqddV78KAIJ3AK51CDS7iFe2iADwSe4RXe4cN5cd6czzmtgrPAdgx/5Hz9Au+YnhE=</latexit>
sha1_base64="By5ASVAv18INlGRC9Vh66v4bjek=">AAACD3icdZBLSwMxFIXv+La+qls3F0VwY8lMfXUhCG5cVrAqdGrJpBkNZjJDkhHKMP/DjX/FjQsVd+78N6atgooeCBzOSbi5X5RJYSwh797Y+MTk1PTMbGVufmFxqbo8f2bSXDPeYqlM9UVEDZdC8ZYVVvKLTHOaRJKfRzdHg/78lmsjUnVq+xnvJPRKiVgwal3UrQZZtwh1gqJXYmhTzPAAv0VbGMaasgLVZYC0LM4ug7JbXSe17Xoj8HfRme26X98bmB3S2Cfo18hQ6/CpZrf6FvZSlidcWSapMW2fZLZTUG0Fk7yshLnhGWU39Iq3nVU04aZTDHcrccMlPYxT7Y6yOEy/vyhoYkw/idzNhNpr87sbhH917dzG+51CqCy3XLHRoDiX6CAMQGFPaM6s7DtDmRbur8iuqYNhHc6Kg/C1Kf5vWkGtUSMnBGZgFdZgE3zYg0M4hia0gMEdPMATPHv33qP3MqI15n1iW4Ef8l4/AFXWnlo=</latexit>
sha1_base64="M0SuRrtjR5uiZ21BxYTIpN45NkY=">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</latexit>
V2 reale risulta minore.
nRT
Il parametro a, caratteristico del gas, è detto pressione interna. pid =
<latexit sha1_base64="ZerlExd/TLPNUWa9mxkH8E/qXvA=">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</latexit>
V nb
L’equazione di van der Waals
Ecco l’equazione di van der Waals:

✓ 2

n a
p+ 2 (V nb) = nRT
<latexit sha1_base64="TQfBpftHwHN6/0tr7cJsIHKXfiI=">AAACJ3icdVBNSyNBFOxx/Yxf2fXo5WEQFDHMJHE1B1fBi0cVE4VMDD2dnqRJT8/Q/WYhDPk5e/GveFlERY/+EzsxgooWNBRV9Xj9KkikMOi6T87Ej8mp6ZnZudz8wuLScv7nr7qJU814jcUy1pcBNVwKxWsoUPLLRHMaBZJfBL2joX/xl2sjYnWO/YQ3I9pRIhSMopVa+QNf8hA3IIEt8ENNWaauSkAHWf2qNABfi04XN8eZOmyDCt5E2Ad1dt7KF9xipVwteb/BkkrZK+8OyY5b3XPBK7ojFMgYJ638rd+OWRpxhUxSYxqem2AzoxoFk3yQ81PDE8p6tMMblioacdPMRocOYN0qbQhjbZ9CGKnvJzIaGdOPApuMKHbNZ28ofuU1Ugz3mplQSYpcsddFYSoBYxi2Bm2hOUPZt4QyLexfgXWprQtttzlbwtul8D2plYrVontaKRz+GbcxS1bJGtkgHtklh+SYnJAaYeQfuSF35N65dv47D87ja3TCGc+skA9wnl8A8jKjqQ==</latexit>
V

dove p è la pressione reale del gas, che possiamo


scrivere come:
Johannes van der Waals

nRT n2 a
p=
<latexit sha1_base64="EvwZ8NnzUOLxNvOpCbB5JQpns98=">AAACFHicdZDNSgMxFIUz/tb6V3Xp5mIRXGiZmVbbLpSCG5dVrAptLZk004ZmMkOSEcowL+HGV3HjQsWtC3e+jWmtoKIXEg7fySX3Hi/iTGnbfrempmdm5+YzC9nFpeWV1dza+oUKY0log4Q8lFceVpQzQRuaaU6vIklx4HF66Q2OR/7lDZWKheJcDyPaDnBPMJ8RrA3q5HYjADiEli8xScTZeZpcwB4ILzX3BF67gA2+dtNOLm8XSsWq6xyAEaWiUyyPxL5drdjgFOxx5dGk6p3cW6sbkjigQhOOlWo6dqTbCZaaEU7TbCtWNMJkgHu0aaTAAVXtZLxVCtuGdMEPpTlCw5h+70hwoNQwMKNuB1j31W9vBP/ymrH2K+2EiSjWVJDPj/yYgw5hFBF0maRE86ERmEhmZgXSxyYLbYLMmhC+NoX/RcMtVAv2aSlfO5qkkUGbaAvtIAeVUQ2doDpqIIJu0T16RE/WnfVgPVsvn0+nrEnPBvpR1usHwj6c8Q==</latexit>
V nb V2
Isoterme di van der Waals
✓ 2

n a 9000
p+ 2 (V nb) = nRT
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V van der Waals
8000 CO2 (T = 20 ºC)

Isoterme di
7000
van der Waals
p(kPa)
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p <latexit sha1_base64="c8lkIfZHBE3+5S8WtmJgVEBAHI0=">AAAB83icdVBNTwIxEO3iF+IX6tFLIzHBy2YXVoEbiRePmLhCAhvSLQUa2u7adknIht/hxYMar/4Zb/4bu4CJGn3JJC/vzWRmXhgzqrTjfFi5tfWNza38dmFnd2//oHh4dKeiRGLi44hFshMiRRgVxNdUM9KJJUE8ZKQdTq4yvz0lUtFI3OpZTAKORoIOKUbaSEEMy2lPcjhpofl5v1hybK/aqLiX0BCv6lZrGblwGnUHurazQAms0OoX33uDCCecCI0ZUqrrOrEOUiQ1xYzMC71EkRjhCRqRrqECcaKCdHH0HJ4ZZQCHkTQlNFyo3ydSxJWa8dB0cqTH6reXiX953UQP60FKRZxoIvBy0TBhUEcwSwAOqCRYs5khCEtqboV4jCTC2uRUMCF8fQr/J37FbtjOjVdqeqs08uAEnIIycEENNME1aAEfYHAPHsATeLam1qP1Yr0uW3PWauYY/ID19gleG5Fa</latexit>

6000

5000

4000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

V (dm3 )
<latexit sha1_base64="bPESzGn8H2NhIEBWRZBlJfRj2sk=">AAAB9HicdVBNT8JAEN3iF+IX6tHLRmKCF9LSKnAj8eIREwskUMh2u8CG3bbZ3WpIw//w4kGNV3+MN/+NW8BEjb5kkpf3ZjIzz48Zlco0P4zc2vrG5lZ+u7Czu7d/UDw8assoEZi4OGKR6PpIEkZD4iqqGOnGgiDuM9Lxp1eZ37kjQtIovFWzmHgcjUM6ohgpLQ3asJz2BYcBnw/s82GxZFYcu1G1LqEmjm3ZtYxcmI26Ca2KuUAJrNAaFt/7QYQTTkKFGZKyZ5mx8lIkFMWMzAv9RJIY4Skak56mIeJEeuni6jk800oAR5HQFSq4UL9PpIhLOeO+7uRITeRvLxP/8nqJGtW9lIZxokiIl4tGCYMqglkEMKCCYMVmmiAsqL4V4gkSCCsdVEGH8PUp/J+41UqjYt44paazSiMPTsApKAML1EATXIMWcAEGAjyAJ/Bs3BuPxovxumzNGauZY/ADxtsnyQmRkA==</latexit>

J m3
a = 0.364
mole
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T
5 m3
V b = 4.27 ⇥ 10
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

<latexit sha1_base64="dSCIqRC8YZzo0TMpK5LGuQip7I4=">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</latexit>
mole
Isoterme di van der Waals
✓ ◆
2
n a nRT n2 a
p+ 2 (V nb) = nRT p=
<latexit sha1_base64="g2UzlFrDCh3XAbyh25+xMwVMUoI=">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</latexit>
V <latexit sha1_base64="EvwZ8NnzUOLxNvOpCbB5JQpns98=">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</latexit>
V nb V2

Isoterme di Imponendo:
van der Waals
@p @2p
p = 0, 2
=0
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="6uOGkz8phVFWvwL7K5IAWTzzq+o=">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</latexit>
@V @V
flesso a
tangente si ottiene:
orizzontale
Vc = 3nb

pc a
pc =
27b2
<latexit sha1_base64="h07VfC+g43Is0uHVCT9NaRzU+PI=">AAAB6XicdVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4CklbbXMrePFY0dhCG8pmu2mXbjZhdyOU0p/gxYOKV/+RN/+Nm7aCij4YeLw3w8y8MOVMacf5sFZW19Y3Ngtbxe2d3b390sHhnUoySahPEp7ITogV5UxQXzPNaSeVFMchp+1wfJn77XsqFUvErZ6kNIjxULCIEayNdJP2Sb9Uduxa1au4F8iQWtWt1nNy7ngNB7m2M0cZlmj1S++9QUKymApNOFaq6zqpDqZYakY4nRV7maIpJmM8pF1DBY6pCqbzU2fo1CgDFCXSlNBorn6fmOJYqUkcms4Y65H67eXiX14301EjmDKRZpoKslgUZRzpBOV/owGTlGg+MQQTycytiIywxESbdIomhK9P0f/Er9ie7VzXyk1vmUYBjuEEzsCFOjThClrgA4EhPMATPFvcerRerNdF64q1nDmCH7DePgEfPY3d</latexit>

Tc 8a
Tc =
27bR
<latexit sha1_base64="5cUQSMNXmTj+qXm8XNf7Oe3kJdU=">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</latexit>

Vc
<latexit sha1_base64="ITwdc9tKu3zPRB8r6zHIc0+WNHs=">AAAB6XicdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePFU1baEPZbDft0s0m7G6EEvoTvHhQ8eo/8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHHRWnklCPxDyWvQArypmgnmaa014iKY4CTrvB9Cr3u/dUKhaLOz1LqB/hsWAhI1gb6bYzJMNyBdn1mlt1LqEh9ZpTa+TkArlNBB0bLVABK7SH5ffBKCZpRIUmHCvVd1Ci/QxLzQin89IgVTTBZIrHtG+owBFVfrY4dQ7PjDKCYSxNCQ0X6veJDEdKzaLAdEZYT9RvLxf/8vqpDpt+xkSSairIclGYcqhjmP8NR0xSovnMEEwkM7dCMsESE23SKZkQvj6F/xOvars2uqlXWu4qjSI4AafgHDigAVrgGrSBBwgYgwfwBJ4tbj1aL9brsrVgrWaOwQ9Yb5/3rI3D</latexit>
V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit
Isoterme di van der Waals
✓ ◆ van der Waals (CO2)
n2 a 9000
p+ 2 (V nb) = nRT 70ºC
100ºC
<latexit sha1_base64="g2UzlFrDCh3XAbyh25+xMwVMUoI=">AAACJ3icdVBdSxtBFJ2NttX0K+pjXy6GgqU07CbRmAcx0Bcfo+RDyMYwO5lNhszOLjN3hbDk5/jiX/FFpBZ99J84+RBqaQ8MHM45lzv3BIkUBl330cmtrb95+25jM//+w8dPnwtb2x0Tp5rxNotlrM8DargUirdRoOTnieY0CiTvBpOfc797ybURsWrhNOH9iI6UCAWjaKVB4diXPMQ9SOA7+KGmLFMXZaCzrHNRnoGvxWiM31aZDvwAFbyIcATqrDUoFN1StVIvewdgSbXiVWpzsu/WD13wSu4CRbJCc1C484cxSyOukElqTM9zE+xnVKNgks/yfmp4QtmEjnjPUkUjbvrZ4tAZfLXKEMJY26cQFuqfExmNjJlGgU1GFMfmb28u/svrpRge9jOhkhS5YstFYSoBY5i3BkOhOUM5tYQyLexfgY2prQttt3lbwsul8H/SLpfqJfe0WmzUV21skC9kl+wRj9RIg5yQJmkTRq7IDflF7p1r59b57TwsozlnNbNDXsF5egbwsaOk</latexit>
V
8000
40ºC
Isoterme di 31ºC
7000
van der Waals
p(kPa) 20ºC
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p <latexit sha1_base64="c8lkIfZHBE3+5S8WtmJgVEBAHI0=">AAAB83icdVBNTwIxEO3iF+IX6tFLIzHBy2YXVoEbiRePmLhCAhvSLQUa2u7adknIht/hxYMar/4Zb/4bu4CJGn3JJC/vzWRmXhgzqrTjfFi5tfWNza38dmFnd2//oHh4dKeiRGLi44hFshMiRRgVxNdUM9KJJUE8ZKQdTq4yvz0lUtFI3OpZTAKORoIOKUbaSEEMy2lPcjhpofl5v1hybK/aqLiX0BCv6lZrGblwGnUHurazQAms0OoX33uDCCecCI0ZUqrrOrEOUiQ1xYzMC71EkRjhCRqRrqECcaKCdHH0HJ4ZZQCHkTQlNFyo3ydSxJWa8dB0cqTH6reXiX953UQP60FKRZxoIvBy0TBhUEcwSwAOqCRYs5khCEtqboV4jCTC2uRUMCF8fQr/J37FbtjOjVdqeqs08uAEnIIycEENNME1aAEfYHAPHsATeLam1qP1Yr0uW3PWauYY/ID19gleG5Fa</latexit>

6000
10ºC
flesso a
tangente 5000
orizzontale

4000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
pc
V (dm3 )
<latexit sha1_base64="h07VfC+g43Is0uHVCT9NaRzU+PI=">AAAB6XicdVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4CklbbXMrePFY0dhCG8pmu2mXbjZhdyOU0p/gxYOKV/+RN/+Nm7aCij4YeLw3w8y8MOVMacf5sFZW19Y3Ngtbxe2d3b390sHhnUoySahPEp7ITogV5UxQXzPNaSeVFMchp+1wfJn77XsqFUvErZ6kNIjxULCIEayNdJP2Sb9Uduxa1au4F8iQWtWt1nNy7ngNB7m2M0cZlmj1S++9QUKymApNOFaq6zqpDqZYakY4nRV7maIpJmM8pF1DBY6pCqbzU2fo1CgDFCXSlNBorn6fmOJYqUkcms4Y65H67eXiX14301EjmDKRZpoKslgUZRzpBOV/owGTlGg+MQQTycytiIywxESbdIomhK9P0f/Er9ie7VzXyk1vmUYBjuEEzsCFOjThClrgA4EhPMATPFvcerRerNdF64q1nDmCH7DePgEfPY3d</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="bPESzGn8H2NhIEBWRZBlJfRj2sk=">AAAB9HicdVBNT8JAEN3iF+IX6tHLRmKCF9LSKnAj8eIREwskUMh2u8CG3bbZ3WpIw//w4kGNV3+MN/+NW8BEjb5kkpf3ZjIzz48Zlco0P4zc2vrG5lZ+u7Czu7d/UDw8assoEZi4OGKR6PpIEkZD4iqqGOnGgiDuM9Lxp1eZ37kjQtIovFWzmHgcjUM6ohgpLQ3asJz2BYcBnw/s82GxZFYcu1G1LqEmjm3ZtYxcmI26Ca2KuUAJrNAaFt/7QYQTTkKFGZKyZ5mx8lIkFMWMzAv9RJIY4Skak56mIeJEeuni6jk800oAR5HQFSq4UL9PpIhLOeO+7uRITeRvLxP/8nqJGtW9lIZxokiIl4tGCYMqglkEMKCCYMVmmiAsqL4V4gkSCCsdVEGH8PUp/J+41UqjYt44paazSiMPTsApKAML1EATXIMWcAEGAjyAJ/Bs3BuPxovxumzNGauZY/ADxtsnyQmRkA==</latexit>

Tc J m3
a = 0.364
mole
<latexit sha1_base64="wzFp2zdgkLsmExx93yCXTwmnqmY=">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</latexit>

5 m3
V b = 4.27 ⇥ 10
Vc
<latexit sha1_base64="ITwdc9tKu3zPRB8r6zHIc0+WNHs=">AAAB6XicdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePFU1baEPZbDft0s0m7G6EEvoTvHhQ8eo/8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHHRWnklCPxDyWvQArypmgnmaa014iKY4CTrvB9Cr3u/dUKhaLOz1LqB/hsWAhI1gb6bYzJMNyBdn1mlt1LqEh9ZpTa+TkArlNBB0bLVABK7SH5ffBKCZpRIUmHCvVd1Ci/QxLzQin89IgVTTBZIrHtG+owBFVfrY4dQ7PjDKCYSxNCQ0X6veJDEdKzaLAdEZYT9RvLxf/8vqpDpt+xkSSairIclGYcqhjmP8NR0xSovnMEEwkM7dCMsESE23SKZkQvj6F/xOvars2uqlXWu4qjSI4AafgHDigAVrgGrSBBwgYgwfwBJ4tbj1aL9brsrVgrWaOwQ9Yb5/3rI3D</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

<latexit sha1_base64="dSCIqRC8YZzo0TMpK5LGuQip7I4=">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</latexit>
mole
Equazione degli stati corrispondenti
L’equazione di van der Waals chiaramente dipende dal gas in esame…

Tuttavia, definendo i seguenti parametri adimensionali:

p V T
P= , V= T =
pc
<latexit sha1_base64="a9ETMq1dU7BMj+Nyqc6cwWXb0Oo=">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</latexit>
Vc Tc

si può scrivere:

✓ ◆✓ 2

n 1 8
P +3 2 V n = nT
<latexit sha1_base64="3nJKj8OcFKu5Y5BQ27VExXYzzao=">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</latexit>
V 3 3

detta equazione degli stati corrispondenti e valida per tutti i gas.


Equazione di van der Waals per i liquidi
L’equazione di van der Waals può essere anche applicata ai liquidi.
In questo caso la tensione di vapore p può essere trascurata ottenendo:

n2 a RT
2
=
<latexit sha1_base64="SVQVy/ugYeyv7DA/suD9kKuWcD8=">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</latexit>
V V nb

pressione interna pressione


di coesione cinetica

che ci conferma che in un solido la pressione “cinetica” è bilanciata da dalle


forze di coesione.
Isoterme di van der Waals
L’andamento delle isoterme di Isoterme di
van der Waals è qualitativamente Andrews
diverso da quello sperimentale…
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p

Isoterme di liquido
van der Waals vapore

<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p stabile
gas non
(sovrassaturo)
omogeneo
tensione di
instabile vapore saturo
T
omogeneo V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

Nonostante ciò è possibile


calcolare la tensione di
T
vapore partendo dalle
V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

isoterme di van der Waals…


Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p
T

tensione di
vapore saturo

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit
Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>
p
T

D
tensione di E
vapore saturo
A C
B

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit
Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
p
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>

Per un ciclo isotermo reversibile,


T l’integrale di Clausius vale:
I I
Q 1
D T
=
T
Q=0
E
<latexit sha1_base64="xoNdT+SbNcphJmzYQqXqXMXx2zI=">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</latexit>

tensione di
vapore saturo
A C
B

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit
Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
p
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>

Per un ciclo isotermo reversibile,


T l’integrale di Clausius vale:
I I
Q 1
D T
=
T
Q=0
E
<latexit sha1_base64="xoNdT+SbNcphJmzYQqXqXMXx2zI=">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</latexit>

tensione di
vapore saturo
A C
L = Q1 |Q2 | = 0
B
<latexit sha1_base64="jr4gXy0TfEWp3zMPXX9ZXL8ipxg=">AAAB+3icdVDLSgMxFM3UV62v0S7dBIvgxiHTVttZCAU3Lly0YG2hLUMmzbShmQdJRijT+ituXKi49Ufc+TemD0FFD1w4Oedecu/xYs6kQujDyKysrq1vZDdzW9s7u3vm/sGtjBJBaJNEPBJtD0vKWUibiilO27GgOPA4bXmjy5nfuqNCsii8UeOY9gI8CJnPCFZacs38NbyADdeGp3DScIsT/UKuWUBWueQU7XOoSblklyozcoacKoK2heYogCXqrvne7UckCWioCMdSdmwUq16KhWKE02mum0gaYzLCA9rRNMQBlb10vvwUHmulD/1I6AoVnKvfJ1IcSDkOPN0ZYDWUv72Z+JfXSZRf7aUsjBNFQ7L4yE84VBGcJQH7TFCi+FgTTATTu0IyxAITpfPK6RC+LoX/k2bRcizUKBdqzjKNLDgER+AE2KACauAK1EETEDAGD+AJPBv3xqPxYrwuWjPGciYPfsB4+wQ7WJIa</latexit>

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit
Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
p
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>

Per un ciclo isotermo reversibile,


T l’integrale di Clausius vale:
I I
Q 1
D T
=
T
Q=0
E
<latexit sha1_base64="xoNdT+SbNcphJmzYQqXqXMXx2zI=">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</latexit>

tensione di
vapore saturo
A C
L = Q1 |Q2 | = 0
B
<latexit sha1_base64="jr4gXy0TfEWp3zMPXX9ZXL8ipxg=">AAAB+3icdVDLSgMxFM3UV62v0S7dBIvgxiHTVttZCAU3Lly0YG2hLUMmzbShmQdJRijT+ituXKi49Ufc+TemD0FFD1w4Oedecu/xYs6kQujDyKysrq1vZDdzW9s7u3vm/sGtjBJBaJNEPBJtD0vKWUibiilO27GgOPA4bXmjy5nfuqNCsii8UeOY9gI8CJnPCFZacs38NbyADdeGp3DScIsT/UKuWUBWueQU7XOoSblklyozcoacKoK2heYogCXqrvne7UckCWioCMdSdmwUq16KhWKE02mum0gaYzLCA9rRNMQBlb10vvwUHmulD/1I6AoVnKvfJ1IcSDkOPN0ZYDWUv72Z+JfXSZRf7aUsjBNFQ7L4yE84VBGcJQH7TFCi+FgTTATTu0IyxAITpfPK6RC+LoX/k2bRcizUKBdqzjKNLDgER+AE2KACauAK1EETEDAGD+AJPBv3xqPxYrwuWjPGciYPfsB4+wQ7WJIa</latexit>

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

Dal momento che il lavoro totale è nullo, le due aree in figura devono essere
uguali: solo in questo modo i lavori nei “sottocili” ABC (percorso in senso
antiorario, lavoro negativo) e CDE (percorso in senso orario, lavoro positivo)
sono uguali e di segno opposto!

L’isobara che garantisce l’uguaglianza è proprio quella corrispondente alla


tensione di vapore saturo.
Isoterme di van der Waals: tensione di vapore
p
<latexit sha1_base64="O+jIhn3C1iiBoQWxnVGWdsKRD0M=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLRhbaEPZbDft2s0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHtypOJaEeiXksewFWlDNBPc00p71EUhwFnHaD6VXud++pVCwWN3qWUD/CY8FCRrA2UicZlivIrtfcqnMJDanXnFojJxfIbSLo2GiBClihPSy/D0YxSSMqNOFYqb6DEu1nWGpGOJ2XBqmiCSZTPKZ9QwWOqPKzxaFzeGaUEQxjaUpouFC/T2Q4UmoWBaYzwnqifnu5+JfXT3XY9DMmklRTQZaLwpRDHcP8azhikhLNZ4ZgIpm5FZIJlphok03JhPD1KfyfeFXbtVGnXmm5qzSK4AScgnPggAZogWvQBh4ggIIH8ASerTvr0XqxXpetBWs1cwx+wHr7BK7SjQc=</latexit>

Per un ciclo isotermo reversibile,


T l’integrale di Clausius vale:
I I
Q 1
D T
=
T
Q=0
E
<latexit sha1_base64="xoNdT+SbNcphJmzYQqXqXMXx2zI=">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</latexit>

tensione di
vapore saturo
A C
L = Q1 |Q2 | = 0
B
<latexit sha1_base64="jr4gXy0TfEWp3zMPXX9ZXL8ipxg=">AAAB+3icdVDLSgMxFM3UV62v0S7dBIvgxiHTVttZCAU3Lly0YG2hLUMmzbShmQdJRijT+ituXKi49Ufc+TemD0FFD1w4Oedecu/xYs6kQujDyKysrq1vZDdzW9s7u3vm/sGtjBJBaJNEPBJtD0vKWUibiilO27GgOPA4bXmjy5nfuqNCsii8UeOY9gI8CJnPCFZacs38NbyADdeGp3DScIsT/UKuWUBWueQU7XOoSblklyozcoacKoK2heYogCXqrvne7UckCWioCMdSdmwUq16KhWKE02mum0gaYzLCA9rRNMQBlb10vvwUHmulD/1I6AoVnKvfJ1IcSDkOPN0ZYDWUv72Z+JfXSZRf7aUsjBNFQ7L4yE84VBGcJQH7TFCi+FgTTATTu0IyxAITpfPK6RC+LoX/k2bRcizUKBdqzjKNLDgER+AE2KACauAK1EETEDAGD+AJPBv3xqPxYrwuWjPGciYPfsB4+wQ7WJIa</latexit>

V
<latexit sha1_base64="EIPs80ILxyzdFMjtuZdzBxWK7jI=">AAAB53icdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU9i01Ta3ghePLZi20Iay2W7a1c0m7G6EEvoLvHhQ8epf8ua/cdNWUNEHA4/3ZpiZFyScKY3Qh1VYW9/Y3Cpul3Z29/YPyodHXRWnklCPxDyW/QArypmgnmaa034iKY4CTnvB3VXu9+6pVCwWN3qWUD/CE8FCRrA2Uqc7KleQXa+5VecSGlKvObVGTi6Q20TQsdECFbBCe1R+H45jkkZUaMKxUgMHJdrPsNSMcDovDVNFE0zu8IQODBU4osrPFofO4ZlRxjCMpSmh4UL9PpHhSKlZFJjOCOup+u3l4l/eINVh08+YSFJNBVkuClMOdQzzr+GYSUo0nxmCiWTmVkimWGKiTTYlE8LXp/B/4lVt10adeqXlrtIoghNwCs6BAxqgBa5BG3iAAAoewBN4tm6tR+vFel22FqzVzDH4AevtE4eEjO0=</latexit>
<latexit

NOTA — I cicli ABC e CDE, presi singolarmente, non sono reversibili. Si consideri ad
esempio il ciclo ABC(A): la prima parte del ciclo, ABC, avviene lungo l’isoterma di van der
Waals e la sostanza si trova nello stato instabile omogeneo di vapore (sovrassaturo); la
seconda parte, CA, avviene lungo l’isobara isoterma in cui la sostanza è in uno stato
stabile non omogeneo.

Nel punto C, quindi, avverrebbe una trasformazione irreversibile da uno stato instabile a
uno stabile.
Energia interna dei gas reali
Consideriamo la relazione, che segue da dS nel piano (V, T):
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@U @p
=T p
<latexit sha1_base64="5Sd5is4FVAQTX8lagqcX/1k+YWI=">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</latexit>
@V T @T V

Mentre per un gas perfetto U dipende solo da T, per un gas reale, a causa delle
interazioni tra le molecole, l’energia interna dipende anche dal volume V.

Partendo dall’equazione di van der Waals:

nRT n2 a
p=
<latexit sha1_base64="EvwZ8NnzUOLxNvOpCbB5JQpns98=">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</latexit>
V nb V2
si ottiene:
✓ ◆
@U n2 a n2 a
= 2 ) U (V, T ) = + f (T )
<latexit sha1_base64="RKWBmkUBPLCY4WUv0BNooKSHwDE=">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</latexit>
@V T V <latexit sha1_base64="BX5w1eBbW49j+nVThOa/pfknAqw=">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</latexit>
V
costante di integrazione
dipendente in generale da T
dovuto alle forze di coesione
Energia interna dei gas reali
Per trovare f(T) occorrono informazioni sui calori specifici, infatti:
✓ ◆
1 @U 1 0
cV = = f (T ) ) f (T ) = ncV T + cost.
n
<latexit sha1_base64="1lvHLkm3oB5Wtx7spdm7H8Jzbyc=">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</latexit>
@T V n <latexit sha1_base64="IqfblNtp28mzVkRfR2wuNItKzfM=">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</latexit>

Segue che:

n2 a
U (V, T ) = + ncV T + cost.
<latexit sha1_base64="5N/eENyw9XkKE8jzOQ81APjkFd4=">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</latexit>
V

Questo risultato ha delle conseguenze interessanti…

✓ ◆
@U n2 a n2 a
= 2 ) U (V, T ) = + f (T )
<latexit sha1_base64="RKWBmkUBPLCY4WUv0BNooKSHwDE=">AAACLHicdVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdelmsAi6KUlbH10IBV24VDBVaGqZTCft0MkkzNwIJeSH3PgrIrhQcet3OKkVH+iBgcM553LnHj8WXINtP1lT0zOzc/OFheLi0vLKamltvaWjRFHm0khE6sonmgkumQscBLuKFSOhL9ilPzzO/csbpjSP5AWMYtYJSV/ygFMCRuqWTjzBAtjBXqAITb2YKOBEYDf74q0Me4r3B7DbTS8yfDTJyusqJlnauq5m3VLZrtRrjaqzjw2p15zaQU727MahjZ2KPUYZTXDWLT14vYgmIZNABdG67dgxdNJ8IRUsK3qJZjGhQ9JnbUMlCZnupONrM7xtlB4OImWeBDxWv0+kJNR6FPomGRIY6N9eLv7ltRMIDjspl3ECTNKPRUEiMEQ4rw73uGIUxMgQQhU3f8V0QEwXYAoumhI+L8X/E7daaVTs83q52Zi0UUCbaAvtIAcdoCY6RWfIRRTdonv0hJ6tO+vRerFeP6JT1mRmA/2A9fYOOwOoUg==</latexit>
@V T V <latexit sha1_base64="BX5w1eBbW49j+nVThOa/pfknAqw=">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</latexit>
V
costante di integrazione
dipendente in generale da T
dovuto alle forze di coesione
Entropia dei gas reali
Data l’energia interna:
n2 a p=
nRT n2 a
U (V, T ) = + ncV T + cost. V nb V2
<latexit sha1_base64="EDhPJxn9KqcJuCQ1FBdXNsymHZI=">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</latexit>
V <latexit sha1_base64="EvwZ8NnzUOLxNvOpCbB5JQpns98=">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</latexit>

segue che:
Q 1
dS = = (dU + p dV )
T T
<latexit sha1_base64="pmf25fz3hPGbo92lSvuG3jY9DL0=">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</latexit>

✓ 2
◆ ✓ 2

1 n a 1 nRT n a
= 2
dV + ncV dT + dV
T <latexit sha1_base64="xCIcFndQz4x9la04X3TgMHk5kiM=">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</latexit>
V T V nb V2

dT dV
= ncV + nR
T V nb
<latexit sha1_base64="BSTC/quB7wjC3s8sRzhTQ+eJvRk=">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</latexit>

e, quindi:

S(V, T ) = ncV ln T + nR ln(V


<latexit sha1_base64="yG9aoCNwT+7KcXM4FZf50c769FE=">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</latexit>
nb) + cost.
Trasformazioni adiabatiche di gas reali
Una trasformazione adiabatica è isoentropica, quindi:

ncV ln T + nR ln(V
<latexit sha1_base64="AA3oCO79PSplQZXfT1+YlwGvf/I=">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</latexit>
nb) = cost.

che possiamo riscrivere come:

T (V
<latexit sha1_base64="mbRYgQVwZ2f8jA62uzu3c++W4BI=">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</latexit>
nb)R/cV = cost.

oppure:

✓ 2

n a
p+ 2 (V nb) = cost.
<latexit sha1_base64="MkQ7UZdD5HJUX8+Oyu3ucCGdvhA=">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</latexit>
V

cp R
= cp cV = 2 ⇡R
cV 2na(V nb)
<latexit sha1_base64="Tu2wsky+Jj6VmHb919UXjCYLa5U=">AAAB73icdVBNS8NAEN34WetX1aOXxSJ4Cpu22uZW8OKxirGVNpTNdtMu3U3C7kYsob/CiwcVr/4db/4bN20FFX0w8Hhvhpl5QcKZ0gh9WEvLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW//RsWpJNQjMY9lJ8CKchZRTzPNaSeRFIuA03YwPs/99h2VisXRtZ4k1Bd4GLGQEayNdNvDSSLje3jVL5WRXau6FecMGlKrOtV6Tk6R20DQsdEMZbBAq1967w1ikgoaacKxUl0HJdrPsNSMcDot9lJFE0zGeEi7hkZYUOVns4On8NgoAxjG0lSk4Uz9PpFhodREBKZTYD1Sv71c/Mvrpjps+BmLklTTiMwXhSmHOob593DAJCWaTwzBRDJzKyQjLDHRJqOiCeHrU/g/8Sq2a6PLWrnpLtIogENwBE6AA+qgCS5AC3iAAAEewBN4tqT1aL1Yr/PWJWsxcwB+wHr7BGHgkE8=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="nm7wZLl8zgNkCbsNCplq9bKJ3PQ=">AAACAHicdVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqhvBTbAIrkqmrbZdCAU3Lis4rdAZSibNtKHJzJBkhDLUjb/ixoWKWz/DnX9jpq2gogfu5XDOvST3+DFnSiP0YeWWlldW1/LrhY3Nre2d4u5eR0WJJNQhEY/kjY8V5Sykjmaa05tYUix8Trv++CLzu7dUKhaF13oSU0/gYcgCRrA2Ur944A6xEBieQzeQmKSkH09N60z7xRIq16rNin0GDalV7Wo9I6eo2UDQLqMZSmCBdr/47g4ikggaasKxUj0bxdpLsdSMcDotuImiMSZjPKQ9Q0MsqPLS2QVTeGyUAQwiaSrUcKZ+30ixUGoifDMpsB6p314m/uX1Eh00vJSFcaJpSOYPBQmHOoJZHHDAJCWaTwzBRDLzV0hG2CShTWgFE8LXpfB/4lTKzTK6qpVazUUaeXAIjsAJsEEdtMAlaAMHEHAHHsATeLburUfrxXqdj+asxc4++AHr7RPk3Ja8</latexit>

1
<latexit sha1_base64="ocz+szv8dFvgQjxAJpq9pUE8LrM=">AAACLHicdVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARdtMy01bYLoaALl7W0VehjyKSZNjSTGZKMMAzzQ278FRFcVHHrd5g+BBU9EDiccy439zgBo1KZ5sRYWl5ZXVtPbaQ3t7Z3djN7+23phwKTFvaZL+4cJAmjnLQUVYzcBYIgz2Hk1hlfTv3beyIk9XlTRQHpeWjIqUsxUlqyM1fYDmAOYrsNL2DXFQjHjSTuDqgMGIqkihiJLR2YWwUOETxp57hz2i8kcaPZ7heTJLEzWTNfKlYL1jnUpFS0iuUpOTOrFRNaeXOGLFigbmeeuwMfhx7hCjMkZccyA9WLkVAUM5Kku6EkAcJjNCQdTTnyiOzFs2sTeKyVAXR9oR9XcKZ+n4iRJ2XkOTrpITWSv72p+JfXCZVb6cWUB6EiHM8XuSGDyofT6uCACoIVizRBWFD9V4hHSPeidMFpXcLXpfB/0irkq3nzppStVRdtpMAhOAInwAJlUAPXoA5aAIMH8AQm4NV4NF6MN+N9Hl0yFjMH4AeMj0+5R6bX</latexit>
RT V 3

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