Art of ancient Egypt

Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of Berlin Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts produced by the civili ation of !ncient Egypt in the lo"er #ile $alley from about 5%%% BCE to 3%% !&' !ncient Egyptian art reached a high level in painting and sculpture, and "as both highly styli ed and symbolic' Much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of (no"ledge of the past' )n a more narro" sense, !ncient Egyptian art refers to the canonical *nd and 3rd &ynasty art developed in Egypt from 3%%% BC and used until the 3rd century' Most elements of Egyptian art remained remar(ably stable over that 3,%%% year period "ith relatively little outside influence' The +uality of observation and e,ecution started at a high level and remained near that level throughout the period' -ortraiture in !ncient Egypt, above all of royalty, "as highly developed, and represented a complicated mi,ture of realistic depiction of individuals and styli ation'

Periods

-redynastic .4*1% BC/*01% BC2 3ld 4ingdom .*01% BC/**51 BC2 Middle 4ingdom .**51 BC/1510 BC2 #e" 4ingdom .1510 BC/1%06 BC2, including the !marna -eriod .1%15 BC/1%55 BC2 Third )ntermediate -eriod .1%06 BC/004 BC2 7irst -ersian -eriod, 8ate -eriod and 9econd -ersian -eriod .004 BC/33* BC2 -tolemaic 4ingdom .33*/3% BC2 :oman Egypt .3% BC to Christiani ation in the 4th century !&2

9un( relief of the crocodile god 9obe(

Symbolism
9ymbolism also played an important role in establishing a sense of order' 9ymbolism, ranging from the pharaoh;s regalia .symboli ing his po"er to maintain order2 to the individual symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, is omnipresent in Egyptian art' !nimals "ere usually also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art' Colours "ere more e,pressive rather than natural< red s(in implied hard "or(ing tanned youth, "hereas yello" s(in "as used for "omen or middle=aged men "ho "or(ed indoors> blue or gold indicated divinity because of its unnatural appearance and association "ith precious materials> the use of blac( for royal 1

figures e,pressed the fertility of the #ile from "hich Egypt "as born' 9tereotypes "ere employed to indicate the geographical origins of foreigners?1@

Hierarchical scale of portraying

Tomb of 9arenput ))' Main article< Aierarchical proportion 9i e the people are dra"n indicates often relative importance in the social order' The (ing, or pharaoh, is usually the largest figure depicted to symboli e the rulerBs superhuman po"ers' 7igures of high officials or tomb o"ner are usually smaller, and in smallest scale are sho"n servants and entertainers, animals, trees, and architectural details' ?*@

Artforms
!ncient Egyptian artforms are characteri ed by regularity and detailed depiction of gods, human beings, heroic battles, and nature, and a high proportion of surviving "or(s "ere intended to provide solace and utility to the deceased in the afterlife' !rtists endeavored to preserve everything from the present as clearly and permanently as possible' !ncient Egyptian art "as created using media ranging from papyrus dra"ings to pictographs .hieroglyphics2 and include funerary sculpture carved in relief and in the round from sandstone, +uart diorite and granite' !ncient Egyptian art displays an e,traordinarily vivid representation of the !ncient Egyptian;s socioeconomic status and belief systems' Egyptian art in all forms obeyed one la"< the mode of representing -haraohs, gods, man, nature and the environment remained consistent for thousands of years'

Painting

Call painting of #efertari !ll Egyptian reliefs "ere painted, and less prestigious "or(s in tombs, temples and palaces "ere Dust painted on a flat surface' 9tone surfaces "ere prepared by "hite"ash, or if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, "ith a smoother gesso layer above> some finer limestones could ta(e paint directly' -igments "ere mostly *

mineral, chosen to "ithstand strong sunlight "ithout fading' The binding medium used in painting remains unclear< egg tempera and various gums and resins have been suggested' )t is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of "et plaster, "as not used' )nstead the paint "as applied to dried plaster, in "hat is called Efresco a seccoE in )talian' !fter painting, a varnish or resin "as usually applied as a protective coating, and many paintings "ith some e,posure to the elements have survived remar(ably "ell, although those on fully e,posed "alls rarely have'?3@ 9mall obDects including "ooden statuettes "ere often painted using similar techni+ues' Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived due to Egypt;s e,tremely dry climate' The paintings "ere often made "ith the intent of ma(ing a pleasant afterlife for the deceased' The themes included Dourney through the after"orld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the under"orld .such as 3siris2' 9ome tomb paintings sho" activities that the deceased "ere involved in "hen they "ere alive and "ished to carry on doing for eternity' )n the #e" 4ingdom and later, the Boo( of the &ead "as buried "ith the entombed person' )t "as considered important for an introduction to the afterlife' Egyptian paintings are painted in such a "ay to sho" a profile vie" and a side vie" of the animal or person' 7or e,ample, the painting to the right sho"s the head from a profile vie" and the body from a frontal vie"' Their main colors "ere red, blue, blac(, gold, and green'

Sculpture

! sculpted head of !menhotep ))) The monumental sculpture of !ncient Egypt is "orld=famous, but refined and delicate small "or(s e,ist in much greater numbers' The Egyptians used the distinctive techni+ue of sun( relief, "hich is "ell suited to very bright sunlight' The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting, "ith parted legs ."here not seated2 and head sho"n from the side, but the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions ma(ing up the figure, using 11 EfistsE to go from the ground to the hair=line on the forehead'?4@ This appears as early as the #armer -alette from &ynasty ), but there as else"here the convention is not used for minor figures sho"n engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses'?5@ 3ther conventions ma(e statues of males dar(er than females ones' $ery conventionali ed portrait statues appear from as early as &ynasty )), before *,51% BCE,?0@ and "ith the e,ception of the art of the !marna period of !h(enaten,?5@ and some other periods such as &ynasty F)), the ideali ed features of rulers, li(e other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until after the Gree( con+uest'?1@ 3

Egyptian pharaohs "ere al"ays regarded as gods, but other deities are much less common in large statues, e,cept "hen they represent the pharaoh as another deity> ho"ever the other deities are fre+uently sho"n in paintings and reliefs' The famous ro" of four colossal statues outside the main temple at !bu 9imbel each sho" :ameses )), a typical scheme, though here e,ceptionally large'?6@ Most larger sculpture survives from Egyptian temples or tombs> massive statues "ere built to represent gods and pharaohs and their +ueens, usually for open areas in or outside temples' The very early colossal Great 9phin, of Gi a "as never repeated, but avenues lined "ith very large statues including sphin,es and other animals formed part of many temple comple,es' The most sacred cult image of a god in a temple, usually held in the naos, "as in the form of a relatively small boat or bar+ue holding an image of the god, and apparently usually in precious metal / none have survived' By &ynasty )$ .*01%/*505 BCE2 at the latest the idea of the 4a statue "as firmly established' These "ere put in tombs as a resting place for the ka portion of the soul, and so "e have a good number of less conventionali ed statues of "ell=off administrators and their "ives, many in "ood as Egypt is one of the fe" places in the "orld "here the climate allo"s "ood to survive over millennia, and many bloc( statues' The so=called reserve heads, plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic, though the e,tent to "hich there "as real portraiture in !ncient Egypt is still debated' Early tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals, buildings and obDects such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the after"orld, and later Ushabti figures'?1%@ Ao"ever the great maDority of "ooden sculpture has been lost to decay, or probably used as fuel' 9mall figures of deities, or their animal personifications, are very common, and found in popular materials such as pottery' There "ere also large numbers of small carved obDects, from figures of the gods to toys and carved utensils' !labaster "as often used for e,pensive versions of these> painted "ood "as the most common material, and normal for the small models of animals, slaves and possessions placed in tombs to provide for the afterlife' $ery strict conventions "ere follo"ed "hile crafting statues and specific rules governed appearance of every Egyptian god' 7or e,ample, the s(y god .Aorus2 "as essentially to be represented "ith a falconBs head, the god of funeral rites .!nubis2 "as to be al"ays sho"n "ith a Dac(alBs head' !rtistic "or(s "ere ran(ed according to their compliance "ith these conventions, and the conventions "ere follo"ed so strictly that, over three thousand years, the appearance of statues changed very little' These conventions "ere intended to convey the timeless and non=aging +uality of the figure;s (a'?11@

Pottery

#e" 4ingdom pottery c'14%% BC !ncient Egyptians used steatite .some varieties "ere called soapstone2 and carved small pieces of vases, amulets, images of deities, of animals and several other obDects' !ncient Egyptian artists also discovered the art of covering pottery "ith enamel' Covering by enamel "as also applied to some stone "or(s' &ifferent types of pottery items "ere deposited in tombs of the dead' 9ome such pottery items represented interior parts of the body, li(e the lungs, the liver and smaller intestines, "hich "ere removed before embalming' ! large number of smaller obDects in enamel pottery "ere also deposited "ith the dead' )t "as customary to craft on the "alls of the tombs cones of pottery, about si, to ten inches tall, on "hich "ere engraved or impressed legends relating to the dead occupants of the tombs' These cones usually contained 4

the names of the deceased, their titles, offices "hich they held, and some e,pressions appropriate to funeral purposes'

Papyrus

The Boo( of the &ead "ritten on papyrus -apyrus "as used by ancient Egyptians .and e,ported to much of the ancient Mediterranean "orld2 for "riting and painting' -apyrus is relatively fragile, lasting at most a century or t"o in a library, and though used all over the classical "orld has only survived "hen buried in the very dry conditions of Egypt, and even then is often in poor condition' -apyrus te,ts illustrate all dimensions of ancient Egyptian life and include literary, religious, historical and administrative documents'

Amarna period

T"o daughters of !(henaten> #ofernoferuaton and #ofernoferure, c' 1355/1351 BC Main article< !marna art The !marna period and the years before the pharaoh !(henaten moved the capital there in the late Eighteenth &ynasty form the most drastic interruption to the continuity of style in the 3ld and #e" 4ingdoms' !marna art is characteri ed by a sense of movement and activity in images, "ith figures having raised heads, many figures overlapping and many scenes full and cro"ded' !s the ne" religion "as a monotheistic "orship of the sun, sacrifices and "orship "ere apparently conducted in open courtyards, and sun( relief decoration "as "idely used in these' The human body is portrayed differently in the !marna style than Egyptian art on the "hole' 7or instance, many depictions of !(henaten;s body give him distinctly feminine +ualities, such as large hips, prominent breasts, and a larger stomach and thighs' This is a divergence from the earlier Egyptian art "hich sho"s men "ith perfectly chiseled bodies' 7aces are still sho"n e,clusively in profile' #ot many buildings from this period have survived the ravages of later (ings, partially as they "ere constructed out of standard si e bloc(s, (no"n as Talatat, "hich "ere very easy to remove and reuse' Temples in !marna, follo"ing the trend, did not follo" traditional Egyptian customs and "ere open, "ithout ceilings, and had no closing doors' )n the generation after !(henaten;s death, artists reverted to their old styles' There "ere still traces of this period;s style in later art'

Related areas

Miniature Egyptian glass"are from the #e" 4ingdom period'

Architecture
Main articles< !ncient Egyptian architecture and Egyptian temple !ncient Egyptian architects used sun=dried and (iln=ba(ed bric(s, fine sandstone, limestone and granite' !rchitects carefully planned all their "or(' The stones had to fit precisely together' Chen creating the pyramids, ramps "ere used to allo" "or(men to move up as the height of the construction gre"' Chen the top of the structure "as completed, the artists decorated from the top do"n, removing ramp sand as they "ent do"n' E,terior "alls of structures li(e the pyramids contained only a fe" small openings' Aieroglyphic and pictorial carvings in brilliant colors "ere abundantly used to decorate Egyptian structures, including many motifs, li(e the scarab, sacred beetle, the solar dis(, and the vulture'

Hieroglyphs

-ot "ith hieroglyphs Main article< Egyptian hieroglyphs Aieroglyphs are the ancient Egyptian "riting system in "hich pictures and symbols stand for sounds and "ords' Hean=7rancois Champollion first decoded hieroglyphs from the :osetta 9tone, "hich "as found in 1566' Aieroglyphs have more than 5%% symbols'

Greek art
Greek art .or, more correctly, art in Greece2 began in the Cycladic and Minoan civili ation' Minoan prehistorical civili ations, and gave birth to Cestern classical art in the subse+uent Geometric, !rchaic and Classical periods ."ith further developments during the Aellenistic -eriod2' )t absorbed influences of Eastern civili ations, of :oman art and its patrons, and the ne" religion of 3rthodo, Christianity in the By antine era and absorbed )talian and European ideas during the period of :omanticism ."ith the invigoration of the Gree( :evolution2, right up until the Modernist and -ostmodernist' Gree( art is mainly five forms< architecture, sculpture, painting, pottery and De"elry ma(ing' 0

Ancient period
Main article< !ncient Gree( art 7urther information< Cycladic art, Minoan civili ation, and Mycenean Greece

)nterior .tondo2 of a red figure (yli,, depicting Aera(les and !thena, by -hoini, .potter2 and &ouris .painter2, circa 41%=45% BC, !nti(ensammlungen Munich' !rtistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre=Gree( Cycladic and the Minoan civili ations, both of "hich "ere influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt' There are three scholarly divisions of the stages of later ancient Gree( art that correspond roughly "ith historical periods of the same names' These are the !rchaic, the Classical and the Aellenistic' The !rchaic period is usually dated from 1%%% BC' The -ersian Cars of 41% BC to 441 BC are usually ta(en as the dividing line bet"een the !rchaic and the Classical periods, and the death of !le,ander the Great in 3*3 BC is regarded as separating the Classical from the Aellenistic period' 3f course, different forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Gree( "orld, and varied to a degree from artist to artist'?1@ There "as no sharp transition from one artistic period to another' The art of ancient Greece has e,ercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture' )n the Cest, the art of the :oman Empire "as largely derived from Gree( models' )n the East, !le,ander the Great;s con+uests initiated several centuries of e,change bet"een Gree(, Central !sian and )ndian cultures, resulting in Greco= Buddhist art, "ith ramifications as far as Hapan' 7ollo"ing the :enaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Gree( art inspired generations of European artists' -ottery "as either red "ith blac( designs or blac( "ith red designs'

Byzantine period
Main articles< By antine !rt and Macedonian art .By antine2

8eft< E,ample of Gree( 3rthodo, visual hagiography' :ight< $ie" of the Barberini ivory, a by antine ivory diptych of the early by antine period> 8ouvre' By antine art is the term created for the Eastern :oman Empire from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453' .The :oman Empire during this period is conventionally (no"n as the By antine Empire'2 The term can also be used for the art of states "hich "ere contemporary "ith the -ersian Empire and shared a common culture "ith it, "ithout actually being part of it, such as Bulgaria, or :ussia, and also $enice, "hich had close ties to the By antine Empire despite being in other respects part of "estern European culture' )t can also be used for the art of peoples of the former By antine Empire under the rule of 3ttoman Empire after 1453' )n some respects the By antine artistic tradition has continued in :ussia and other Eastern 3rthodo, countries to the present day'?*@ By antine art gre" from the art of ancient Greece and, at least before 1453, never lost sight of its classical heritage, but "as distinguished from it in a number of "ays' The most profound of these "as that the humanist ethic of ancient Gree( art "as replaced by the Christian ethic' )f the purpose of classical art "as the glorification of man, the purpose of By antine art "as the glorification of God' )n place of the nude, the figures of God the 7ather, Hesus Christ, the $irgin Mary and the saints and martyrs of Christian tradition "ere elevated and became the dominant = indeed almost e,clusive = focus of By antine art' 3ne of the most important forms of By antine art "as, and still is, theded the Cretan school as the leading school of Gree( post=By antine painting after Crete fell to the 3ttomans in 1006' 8i(e the Cretan school it combined By antine traditions "ith an increasing Cestern European artistic influence, and also sa" the first signiand the #ational Gallery of !rt in Cashington, &'C'?3@

Roman art

7resco from the $illa of the Mysteries' -ompeii, 1% BC

$eristic portrait bust of an old man, head covered (capite velato), either a priest or paterfamilias .marble, mid=1st century BC2 Roman art refers to the visual arts made in !ncient :ome and in the territories of the :oman Empire' :oman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic "or(' 8u,ury obDects in metal="or(, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass, are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of :oman art,?1@ although this "ould not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries' 9culpture "as perhaps considered as the highest form of art by :omans, but figure painting "as also very highly regarded' The t"o forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, "ith a very large body of sculpture surviving from about the 1st century BC on"ards, though very little from before, but very little painting at all remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary "ould have considered to be of the highest +uality' !ncient :oman pottery "as not a lu,ury product, but a vast production of Efine "aresE in terra sigillata "ere decorated "ith reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society "ith stylish obDects at "hat "as evidently an affordable price' :oman coins "ere an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers' 3ther perishable forms of art have not survived at all'

Painting

-ompeian painter "ith painted statue and framed painting -ompeii The !ncient :omans lived in a highly visual society, surrounded by images< E)t is difficult for us to imagine the delight "hich the ancients found in pictures ''' halls, verandahs and bo"ers s"armed "ith painted doves, peacoc(s, lions, panthers, fishes, cupids, shepherds, sailors, idylls, myths and fairy talesE'?1*@ 3f the vast body of :oman painting "e no" have only a very fe" poc(ets of survivals, "ith many documented types not surviving at all, or doing so only from the very end of the period' The best (no"n and most important poc(et is the "all paintings from -ompeii, Aerculaneum and other sites nearby, "hich sho" ho" residents 6

of a "ealthy seaside resort decorated their "alls in the century or so before the fatal eruption of Mount $esuvius in 56 !&' ! succession of dated styles have been defined and analysed by modern art historians beginning "ith !ugust Mau, sho"ing increasing elaboration and sophistication' 9tarting in the 3rd century !& and finishing by about 4%% "e have a large body of paintings from the Catacombs of :ome, by no means all Christian, sho"ing the later continuation of the domestic decorative tradition in a version adapted = probably not greatly adapted = for use in burial chambers, in "hat "as probably a rather humbler social milieu than the largest houses in -ompeii' Much of #ero;s palace in :ome, the &omus !urea, survived as grottos and gives us e,amples "hich "e can be sure represent the very finest +uality of "all=painting in its style, and "hich may "ell have represented significant innovation in style' There are a number of other parts of painted rooms surviving from :ome and else"here, "hich some"hat help to fill in the gaps of our (no"ledge of "all=painting' 7rom :oman Egypt there are a large number of "hat are (no"n as 7ayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on "ood added to the outside of mummies by a :omani ed middle=class> despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of :oman style in painted portraits, "hich are other"ise entirely lost' #othing remains of the Gree( paintings imported to :ome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on "ood done in )taly during that period'?4@ )n sum, the range of samples is confined to only about *%% years out of the about 6%% years of :oman history,?13@ and of provincial and decorative painting' Most of this "all painting "as done using the secco .IdryJ2 method, but some fresco paintings also e,isted in :oman times' There is evidence from mosaics and a fe" inscriptions that some :oman paintings "ere adaptations or copies of earlier Gree( "or(s'?13@ Ao"ever, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be recording the names of immigrant Gree( artists from :oman times, not from !ncient Gree( originals that "ere copied'?1@ The :omans entirely lac(ed a tradition of figurative vase=painting comparable to that of the !ncient Gree(s, "hich the Etruscans had emulated'

Variety of subjects
:oman painting provides a "ide variety of themes< animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subDects' &uring the Aellenistic period, it evo(ed the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses'?1@ Erotic scenes are also relatively common' )n the late empire, after *%%!&, early Christian themes mi,ed "ith pagan imagery survive on catacomb "alls'?14@

Landscape and vistas

Boscotrecase, -ompeii' 9econd style The main innovation of :oman painting compared to Gree( art "as the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techni+ues of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1,515 years later' 9urface te,tures, shading, and coloration are "ell applied but scale and spatial depth "as still not 1%

rendered accurately' 9ome landscapes "ere pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens "ith flo"ers and trees, "hile others "ere architectural vistas depicting urban buildings' 3ther landscapes sho" episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey'?15@ The art of the ancient East "ould have (no"n the landscape only in terms of civil or military scenes'?10@ This theory, defended by 7ran Cic(hoff, is debatable' )t is possible to see evidence of Gree( (no"ledge of landscape portrayal in -lato;s Critias .1%5b/1%1b2< ''' and if "e loo( at the portraiture of divine and of human bodies as e,ecuted by painters, in respect of the ease or difficulty "ith "hich they succeed in imitating their subDects in the opinion of onloo(ers, "e shall notice in the first place that as regards the earth and mountains and rivers and "oods and the "hole of heaven, "ith the things that e,ist and move therein, "e are content if a man is able to represent them "ith even a small degree of li(eness '''?15@

Still life
:oman still life subDects are often placed in illusionistic niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday obDects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells' E,amples of the theme of the glass Dar filled "ith "ater "ere s(illfully painted and later served as models for the same subDect often painted during the :enaissance and Baro+ue periods'?11@

Portraits

The 9everan Tondo, a panel painting of the imperial family, c' *%% !&> !nti(ensammlung, Berlin

Mummy portrait of a "oman "ith a ringlet hairstyle' :oyal Museum of 9cotland' -liny complained of the declining state of :oman portrait art, EThe painting of portraits "hich used to transmit through the ages the accurate li(enesses of people, has entirely gone out ''' )ndolence has destroyed the arts'E?16@ )n Greece and :ome, "all painting "as not considered as high art' The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture "as panel painting, i'e' tempera or encaustic painting on "ooden panels' Knfortunately, since "ood is a perishable material, only a very fe" e,amples of such paintings have survived, namely the 9everan Tondo from c' *%% !&, a very routine official portrait from some provincial government office, and the "ell=(no"n 7ayum mummy portraits, all from :oman Egypt, and almost certainly not of the highest contemporary +uality' The portraits "ere attached to burial mummies at the face, from "hich almost all have 11

no" been detached' They usually depict a single person, sho"ing the head, or head and upper chest, vie"ed frontally' The bac(ground is al"ays monochrome, sometimes "ith decorative elements'?*%@ )n terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco=:oman traditions than Egyptian ones' They are remar(ably realistic, though variable in artistic +uality, and may indicate the similar art "hich "as "idespread else"here but did not survive' ! fe" portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of "hich are considered very realistic as "ell'?*1@

Asian art
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-aintings on tile of guardian spirits donned in Chinese robes, from the Aan &ynasty .*%* BC / **% !&2 Asian art can refer to art amongst many cultures in !sia'

Various types of Asian art

Aan &ynasty .*%* BC / **% !&2 painted ceramic figurines of a female servant and male advisor in Chinese sil( robes !fghan art ! erbaiDanian art Balinese art Bhutanese art Buddhist art Burmese contemporary art Chinese art Eastern art )ndian art 1*

)ndonesian art )ranian art )sraeli art )slamic art He"ish art Hapanese art 4orean art 8aotian art -ersian=9assanid art patterns -hilippine !rts Thai art Thai contemporary art Tibetan art Tur(ish art $ietnamese art $isual arts of Cambodia

Gallery

Hapanese art, Aa(uin E(a(u, 9croll calligraphy of Bodhidharma ILen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become BuddhaJ, .1010 to 15062

)ndian art, The 9un Temple in 4onar('

Chinese art, painting Xiao and Xiang rivers by &ong Muan .c' 634/60*2'

13

Cambodian art, 9tone bas=relief at Bayon temple depicting the 4hmer army at "ar "ith the Cham, carved c' 1*%% CE

4orean art, Hoseon dynasty palace architecture'

Tibetan art, &harmapala, 7ield Museum, Chicago'

Tibetan !rt, Mandala

Thai art, The bo" of :oyal Barge 9uphannahongse of Thailand

Oriental Art
14

3riental !rt "as founded prior to the 9econd Corld Car by &r Cilliam Cohn in 3,ford, K4' The
+uarterly "as associated "ith !sian !rt presently in the collection of the !shmolean Museum and "as the first Dournal to pioneer publishing on research and discoveries in !sian art history'

Chinese art

Chinese Dade ornament "ith dragon and phoeni, design, late 9pring and !utumn -eriod .5** BC=41* BC2' Chinese art is visual art that, "hether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists' The Chinese art in the :epublic of China .Tai"an2 and that of overseas Chinese can also be considered part of Chinese art "here it is based in or dra"s on Chinese heritage and Chinese culture' Early Estone age artE dates bac( to 1%,%%% BC, mostly consisting of simple pottery and sculptures' !fter this early period Chinese art, li(e Chinese history, is typically classified by the succession of ruling dynasties of Chinese emperors, most of "hich lasted several hundred years' Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the "orld, and is mar(ed by an unusual degree of continuity "ithin, and consciousness of, that tradition, lac(ing an e+uivalent to the Cestern collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles' The media that have usually been classified in the Cest since the :enaissance as the decorative arts are e,tremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest "or( "as produced in large "or(shops or factories by essentially un(no"n artists, especially in the field of Chinese porcelain' Much of the best "or( in ceramics, te,tiles and other techni+ues "as produced over a long period by the various )mperial factories or "or(shops, "hich as "ell as being used by the court "as distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the "ealth and po"er of the Emperors' )n contrast, the tradition of in( "ash painting, practiced mainly by scholar=officials and court painters especially of landscapes, flo"ers, and birds, developed aesthetic values depending on the individual imagination of and obDective observation by the artist that are similar to those of the Cest, but long pre=dated their development there' !fter contacts "ith Cestern art became increasingly important from the 16th century on"ards, in recent decades China has participated "ith increasing success in "orld"ide contemporary art'

Painting

-ainting by &ong Muan .c' 634/60*2' 15

Beginning in the Tang dynasty .011/6%52, the primary subDect matter of painting "as the landscape, (no"n as shanshui .mountain "ater2 painting' )n these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, the purpose "as not to reproduce e,actly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the ErhythmE of nature' -ainting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techni+ues as calligraphy and "as done "ith a brush dipped in blac( or colored in(> oils "ere not used' !s "ith calligraphy, the most popular materials on "hich paintings "ere made "ere paper and sil(' The finished "or(s "ere then mounted on scrolls, "hich could be hung or rolled up' Traditional painting "as also done in albums, on "alls, lac+uer "or(, and in other media' &ong Muan "as an active painter in the 9outhern Tang 4ingdom' Ae "as (no"n for both figure and landscape paintings, and e,emplified the elegant style "hich "ould become the standard for brush painting in China over the ne,t 6%% years' !s "ith many artists in China, his profession "as as an official "here he studied the e,isting styles of 8i 9i,un and Cang Cei' Ao"ever, he added to the number of techni+ues, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect' Lhan Li+ian "as a painter during the 9ui &ynasty' Ais only painting in e,istence is Strolling bout !n Spring arranged mountains perspectively' Because the first pure scenery paintings of Europe emerged after the 15th century, Strolling bout !n Spring may "ell be the first scenery painting of the "orld'

Art market

ll "he #ountains Blanketed in $ed Today, the mar(et for Chinese art, both anti+ue and contemporary, is "idely reported to be among the hottest and fastest=gro"ing in the "orld, attracting buyers all over the "orld'?16@?*%@?*1@ The %oice of merica reported in *%%0 that modern Chinese art is ra(ing in record prices both internationally and in domestic mar(ets, some e,perts even fearing the mar(et might be overheating'?**@ "he &conomist reported that Chinese art has become the latest darling in the "orld mar(et according to the record sales from 9otheby;s and Christie;s, the biggest fine=art auction houses'?*3@ The !nternational 'erald "ribune reported that Chinese porcelains "ere fought over in the art mar(et as Eif there "as no tomorro"E'?*4@ Contemporary Chinese art also sa" record sales throughout the *%%%s' )n *%%5, it "as estimated that 5 of the "orld;s 1% best selling living artists at art auction "ere from China, "ith artists such as Lhang Fiaogang "hose "or(s "ere sold for a total of N50'1 million at auction in *%%5'?*5@ )n terms of buying=mar(et, China overtoo(

10

Art movement
!n art movement is a tendency or style in art "ith a specific common philosophy or goal, follo"ed by a group of artists during a restricted period of time, .usually a fe" months, years or decades2 or, at least, "ith the heyday of the movement defined "ithin a number of years' !rt movements "ere especially important in modern art, "hen each consecutive movement "as considered as a ne" avant=garde'

The concept
!ccording to theories associated "ith modernism and the concept of postmodernism, art movements are especially important during the period of time corresponding to modern art'?1@ The period of time called Emodern artE is posited to have changed appro,imately half="ay through the *%th century and art made after"ard is generally called contemporary art' -ostmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism?*@ and refers to that period after the EmodernE period called contemporary art'?3@ The postmodern period began during late modernism ."hich is a contemporary continuation of modernism2, and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the *1st century'?4@?5@ &uring the period of time corresponding to Emodern artE each consecutive movement "as often considered a ne" avant=garde'?4@ !lso during the period of time referred to as Emodern artE each movement "as seen corresponding to a some"hat grandiose rethin(ing of all that came before it, concerning the visual arts' Generally there "as a commonality of visual style lin(ing the "or(s and artists included in an art movement' $erbal e,pression and e,planation of movements has come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto,?0@?5@ and sometimes from art critics and others "ho may e,plain their understanding of the meaning of the ne" art then being produced' )n the visual arts, many artists, theorists, art critics, art collectors, art dealers and others mindful of the unbro(en continuation of modernism and the continuation of modern art even into the contemporary era, ascribe to and "elcome ne" philosophies of art as they appear'?1@?6@ -ostmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era'?1%@?11@ There are many theorists ho"ever "ho doubt as to "hether or not such an era "as actually a fact>?4@ or Dust a passing fad'?5@?1*@ The term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature' )n music it is more common to spea( about genres and styles instead' 9ee also cultural movement, a term "ith a broader connotation' !s the names of many art movements use the =ism suffi, .for e,ample cubism and futurism2, they are sometimes referred to as isms'

!th" and #$th"century art mo%ements

Hac+ues=8ouis &avid, "he Coronation of Napoleon, .11%02, MusOe du 8ouvre, Aistory painting

15

EugPne &elacroi,, (iberty (eading the )eople 113%, :omanticism

Thomas Cole, "he Course of &mpire* "he Savage State 1130, Audson :iver 9chool

Gustave Courbet, Stone+Breakers, 1146, :ealist 9chool

Hean=Baptiste=Camille Corot, c' 1105, %ille d, vray #ational Gallery of !rt, Cashington, &C, Barbi on 9chool?13@

Claude Monet, 'aystacks- (sunset), 116%/1161, Museum of 7ine !rts, Boston, )mpressionism

!cademic, c' 15%%s/16%%s !esthetic Movement

8es $ingt 8uminism 11

!merican Barbi on school !merican )mpressionism !msterdam )mpressionism !rt #ouveau, c' 116%/161% !rts and Crafts Movement, founded 110%s Barbi on school, c' 113%s/115%s Biedermeier, c' 1115=1141 Cloisonnism, c' 1111/16%%s &anish Golden !ge &ecadent movement &ivisionism, c' 111%s/161%s &Qsseldorf 9chool Etching revival E,pressionism, c' 116%s/163%s German :omanticism, c' 156%s/115%s GrQnder eit Aague 9chool, c' 110%s/116%s Aeidelberg 9chool Aistory painting, c' 14%%s/16%%s Aoosier Group Audson :iver 9chool, c' 11*%s/16%%s )mpressionism, c' 110%s/16*%s )ncoherents, c' 111*=116%s Hugendstil 8es #abis, c' 116%s/16%%s

8yon 9chool Macchiaioli c' 115%s/16%%s Mir is(usstva, founded 1161 Modernism, c' 110%s=ongoing #aturalism #a arene, c' 111%s/113% #eo=Classicism, c' 151%s/16%%s #eo=impressionism, c' 111%s/161%s #or"egian romantic nationalism, c' 114%/ 1105 #or"ich 9chool, founded 11%3 3rientalism -eredvi hni(i -ointillism, c' 111%s/161%s -ont=!ven 9chool, c' 115%s/116%s -ost=)mpressionism, c' 111%s/16%%s -re=:aphaelite Brotherhood :ealism, c' 115%s/16%%s :omanticism, c' 155%s/116%s 9ecession Groups, c' 116%s=161%s 9ociety of !merican !rtists, c' 1155/16%0 9panish Eclecticism, c' 1145=116%s 9ymbolism 9ynthetism, c' 1155/16%%s Tonalism, c' 111%/1615 $ienna 9ecession, founded 1165 Chite Mountain art, c' 11*%s/115%s

20th century

1900-1918

Cassily 4andins(y, 16%3, &er Blaue :eiter

-ablo -icasso, .amily of Saltimban/ues- 16%5, -icasso;s :ose -eriod 16

Aenri Matisse 16%5, 7auvism

-ablo -icasso 16%5, early Cubism

Georges Bra+ue 161%, !nalytic Cubism

-iet Mondrian, 161*, early &e 9tiDl

*%

4a imir Malevich, (Supremus No0 12), Museum of !rt, 1610, 9uprematism

Marcel &uchamp, .ountain- 1615, photograph by !lfred 9tieglit , &ada

!cademic, c' 16%%s=ongoing !merican realism, c' 116%s/16*%s !nalytic Cubism, c' 16%6/161* !rt &eco, c' 16*%s/164%s !shcan 9chool, c' 116%s/16*%s Berliner 9e ession, founded 1161 Bloomsbury Group, c' 16%%s/160%s Camden To"n Group, c' 1611/1613 Constructivism, c' 16*%/16**, 16*%s/164%s Cubism, c' 16%0/1616 Cubo=7uturism, c' 161*/1611 C ech Cubism, c' 161%=1614 &ada, c' 1610/16** &er Blaue :eiter, c' 1611/1614 &e 9tiDl, c' 1615/1631 &eutscher Cer(bund, founded 16%5 &ie BrQc(e, founded 16%5 Early Cubism, c' 16%0/16%1 E,pressionism c' 116%s/163%s 7auvism, c' 16%%/161% 7uturism, c' 16%6/1610 German E,pressionism, c' 1613/163% Group of 9even .Canada2, c' 1613/163%s

Hac( of &iamonds, founded 16%6 8uminism .)mpressionism2, c' 16%%s/163%s Modernism, c' 110%s/ongoing #eo=Classicism, c' 16%%s/ongoing #eue 4Qnstlervereinigung MQnchen #ovembergruppe, founded 1611 3rphism, c' 161%/1613 -hoto=9ecession, founded c' 16%* -icasso;s Blue -eriod, c' 16%1/16%4 -icasso;s :ose -eriod, c' 16%4/16%0 -icasso;s !frican -eriod, 16%0/16%6 -ittura Metafisica, c' 1611/16*% -urism, c' 1615/163%s :ayonism 9ection d;3r, c' 161*/1614 9uprematism, formed c' 1615/1610 9ynchromism, founded 161* 9ynthetic Cubism, c' 161*/1616 The Eight, c' 16%6/1611 The Ten, c' 1165/16*% $orticism, founded 1614

1918-194

Theo van &oesburg, Composition XX, 16*%, &e 9tiDl

*1

Ma, Ernst, "he &lephant Celebes .16*12, Tate, 9urrealism

Charles &emuth, ! Sa3 the .igure 1 in 4old, 16*1, Metropolitan Museum of !rt, -recisionism

Grant Cood, merican 4othic- 163%, 9ocial :ealism !merican 9cene painting, c' 16*%s/165%s !rbeitsrat fQr 4unst !rt &eco Bauhaus, c' 1616/1633 Concrete art &er :ing &e 9tiDl, c' 1615/1631 Ecole de -aris Geometric abstraction Gruppo 5 )nternational 9tyle, c' 16*%s/165%s 4apists, c' 163%s

Magic :ealism #eo=:omanticism #eue 9achlich(eit #ovecento )taliano #ovembergruppe, founded 1611 -recisionism, c' 1611/164%s :egionalism .art2, c' 163%s/164%s :eturn to order, 1611=16** 9cuola :omana, c' 16*1/1645 9ocial :ealism, c' 16*%s/160%s 9ocialist :ealism 9urrealism, c' 16*%s/160%s

**

1940-19!

!rshile Gor(y, "he (iver is the Cock,s Comb .16442, oil on canvas, 53R S 61E .110 S *46 cm2 !lbright/ 4no, !rt Gallery, Buffalo, #e" Mor(' Gor(y "as an !rmenian=born !merican painter "ho had a seminal influence on !bstract E,pressionism' &e 4ooning said< E) met a lot of artists T but then ) met Gor(y''' Ae had an e,traordinary gift for hitting the nail on the head> remar(able' 9o ) immediately attached myself to him and "e became very good friends'E?14@ !bstract e,pressionism 8yrical abstraction !ction painting #eo=&ada !rte -overa #e" Brutalism !rt )nformel #orth"est 9chool !ssemblage #ouveau :Oalisme Beatni( art 3p !rt Chicago )magists 3rganic abstraction CoBr!, c' 1641=1651 3utsider !rt Color 7ield painting -anic Movement Combine painting -op !rt 7lu,us -ost=painterly abstraction Aappening -ublic art Aard=Edge -ainting :etro art 4inetic !rt 9erial art 4itchen 9in( 9chool 9haped canvas 9ituationist )nternational 8ettrism Tachism

19! -"000

!bstract )llusionism !ppropriation !rte -overa !rt -hotography Body !rt Classical :ealism Conceptual !rt &ogme 65 Earth !rt 7iguration 8ibre 7un( art )nstallation art )nternet !rt 8and art 8ate modernism 8ight and 9pace

8o"bro" 8yrical !bstraction Massurrealism Minimalism #eo=E,pressionism #eo=figurative #eo=pop -erformance !rt -ostminimalism -ostmodernism -hotorealism -sychedelic art :elational art 9ite=specific art 9ound !rt 9teampun( Transavanguardia *3

$ideo !rt

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