KULLIYYAH OF PHARMACY

SEMESTER 2, 2018/2019

PHMT 2182: COSMETICS AND COSMECEUTICAL

TITLE: REVIEW OF COSMECEUTICAL BENEFITS OF ROSA

DAMASCENA SPECIES

Lecturer: Asst. Prof. Dr. Hazrina Ab. Hadi

Date of submission: 1st April 2019

GROUP 16

NO. NAME MATRIC NO.

1. ISMAIL BIN MAT ZALI 1711497

2. NUR AFIQAH BINTI MOHD ZAKI 1710962

3. NUR AIN BINTI ZAIDAN 1714072

4. KHAIRUNNISA BINTI ZULKARNAIN 1712424

ABSTRACT (PIQAH) (350-500 words no in-text citation included)

Rosaceae is the 19th largest family of plants with over 3100 species and 100 genera. Rosa
genus can mainly be found in the colder and temperate forests of Northern hemisphere.
Commonly, roses are being used as ornamental flowers, cut flowers and landscape plants.
However, roses have long being used traditionally for medicinal purposes. Now, the uses of
roses have developed to cosmetics industries. This paper discussed the cosmeceutical benefits
exhibited by Rosa damascena species as an anti-ageing, whitening-agent and perfumery. Rose
bioactive compounds from Rosa damascena delay the ageing that caused by reactive oxygen
species (ROS) by reducing the amount of ROS in dermis layer. The enzymes presence in the
rose are capable to reduce the production of melanocyte and causes the skin to look fairer.
Besides, presence of many phenolic compounds in the rose interrupt the tyrosinase activity that
lead to the whitening properties towards the skin. Additional, roses are commonly used in
production of perfume. Terpene alcohol are the main compound found in rose oil that give scent.

1.0 INTRODUCTION (PIQAH)

Rosaceae and its morphology

Rosaceae is the family of rose plant that consists of 95 to 100 genera and 2830 to 3100
species (Judd, Campbell, Kellog, Stevens, & Donoghue, 2008) which makes it as the 19th largest
family of plants (AWP, 2007). Rosaceae family includes plant such as herbs, shrubs and trees
that sometimes rhizomatous, climbing or thorny (Judd et al., 2008). Most of them are woody
plants and prominents in the forest as the understory plants. Rosaceous trees may also be minor
components of mature mixed deciduous forests (Judd et al., 2008). Rosaceae is classified based
on the fruit type into four subfamilies, namely Amygdyloideae, Maloideae, Rosoideae, and
Spiraeoideae (Judd et al., 2008). Under the subfamily of Rosoideae, there are few genera such
as Potentilla, Fragaria, Rubus and Rosa. Rose plants fall under the Rosa genus. Rose plants are
dicotyledonous plants. The petals come in variety of color such as white, yellow, red, pink, blue
and also black
Distribution
 As mentioned before, the genus for roses is Rosa, which derives from Latin. Rose plant
may grow up to 30 feet. It requires soil type that is well-drained garden loam. It propagates
through cutting or grafts. Its distribution can be categorised as cosmopolitan (Judd et al., 2008),
where it can be found all over the world. Rosa species mostly found in the colder and temperate
forests of the Northern hemisphere. In Malaysia, the occurrence of roses can mainly be found
in the extensive hill regions such as Cameron Highland and Fraser’s Hill. The modern cultivars
are interspecific hybrids derived from these 10 species which are [Link], R. chinensis, H.
foetida, R. gallica, R gigantean, R. moschata, R. multiflora, R. phoenicea, R. rugosa and R.
wichuraina.
History of Rosa
Rose is admired for its beauty and fragrance. Apart from from being a landscape plant
and cut flowers, roses are also used to obtain its oil for perfume purpose and its hips can be
utilised as a source of Vitamin C. The cultivation of roses starts from thousands of years ago.
In Persia on the 14th century, the knights returned from crusades brought R. damascena (also
known as R. summer and damask rose) to Europe.

Traditional uses of roses

Roses have been used since the earliest times in rituals, cosmetics, perfumes, medicines,
and aromatherapy. People all over the world have used roses for a long time. Apart from being
as a landscape plants, roses also offers few benefits to humans. Even before the
commercialization of roses, people have been using it traditionally to obtain its benefits. In the
oriental country such as China, rose petals of Rosa rugosa are traditionally used to treat
diarrhoea, gastritis, hepatitis, acute mastitis, trauma and blood disorder and also to relieve pain
(Hsu, Chen, Shen, Hsu, Chen, & Chang, 1986). While in northern Japan, it is traditionally used
for the treatment of diarrhoea and bleeding (Hashidoko, 1996). Additionally, local people of
Lalehzar in Iran exploit three species of Rosa genus which are Rosa damascene, Rosa kazanlik
and Rosa gallica and made used of them into rose water and rose oil (Shamspur & Ali, 2010).

Rosa damascena
 Figure 1 Rosa damascena (from Tucker & DeBaggio, 2009, p. 421)

Rosa damascena is also known as damask rose. There are three species of it which are,
Rosa damascena bifera, Rosa damascena trigitipetala and Rosa damascena versicolor
(Bhattarcharjee, 2010). Commonly, these rose plants can grow up to 180cm. It is a shrub with
6 cm long grey-green foliage, and double flowers with an incurved centre (Figure 1) (Shamspur
& Ali, 2010; Bhattarcharjee, 2010) . The blooms may grow up to 7.5 cm wide. The petals are
commonly in pink and may change to almost white in full blooming stage. Rosa damascena
trigintipetala is a rose species with with red-pink petals and usually cultivated in order to get
the rose oil. Meanwhile, Rosa damascena versicolor is a species with untidy and semi double
bloom, commonly in pink, white, or bicolor. The damask rose may be derived from
hybridization of R. moschata Herrm., R. gallica, and R. fedtschenkoana Regel (Tucker &
DeBaggio, 2009). The relatively well-defined genus Rosa contains stamens and free carpels in
the flower parts, rose hip, sepal that enclosed the petal, peduncle which is the stalk bearing,
stem with thorn, bud onion and taproot root (Figure 2).
 Figure 2: General structure of rose plant (Adapted from “ Rose”, n.d.)

The uses of roses today

Roses are the most essential ornamental flowers in the world (Boskabady, Shafei,
Saberi, & Amini, 2011; Soundararajan, Won, & Kim, 2019) and one of the most popular cut
flowers due to the color variation it offers and also fragrance. Roses are important for the
fragrance industry and rose oil production. Rose oil is considered to be the among the expensive
essential oil in the world owing to its unique combination of high value odour constituents and
also low oil yields (Baydar & Baydar, 2005). The main producers of rose oil in the Turkey,
Bulgaria, Morocco, Iran, Egypt, France, China and India. Turkey and Bulgaria supply about
80%-90% rose oil, thus making them as the two largest producers of rose oil worldwide (
Kovacheva, Rusanov, & Atanassov, 2014; Baydar, 2006). In the cosmeceutical industry, rosa
damascena have been claimed to exhibit anti-ageing property, skin-whitening property and as
perfumery in cosmetics products. In this paper, the cosmeceutical benefits of Rosa damascena
species will be further discussed.

2.0 CONTENT

2.1 ANTI-AGING AGENTS (AIN)

Pathophysiology of aging
Generally, aging is associated with immunosenescence (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). It
causes increased risk to get infected by a microbe, increased malagnancies and reduce the
effectiveness of vaccination (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Skin aging or cutaneous aging can be
divided into two categories which are chronological aging and photoaging (Gragnani et al.,
2014)). According to Gragani et al. (2014), skin aging categorized into intrinsic factor and
extrinsic factor. Chronological aging or intrinsic occur because of genetic and time (Gragnani
et al., 2014). Intrinsic aging does not only occur on the skin but also involve organ. Meanwhile,
photoaging or extrinsic factor caused by environmental factors such as air pollution, sun
exposure and poor nutrition (Gragnani et al., 2014). Therefore, skin is the most affected area in
aging especially area that usually exposed to sunlight like face and hand. It is because of the
effect of chronological aging superimposed with photoaging (Quan and Fisher, 2015).
Chronological aging appears thin, dry and fine wrinkled meanwhile the manifestation of
photoaging are leathery, lax, coarse wrinkles, and uneven pigmentation (Rittié and Fisher,
2015). Some manifestation of aging is different according to the type of aging. However, most
of the symptom is similar for both types of aging. Skin is composed of collagenous matrix that
plays a role in mechanical strength, resiliency, and elasticity of skin (Rittié and Fisher, 2015).
Alteration in the collagenous matrix will affect the normal function of collagen in the skin. In
aging, all function that confers by collagenous extracellular matrix is decreasing especially in
the skin that always exposed to sunlight (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Alteration of type 1 collagen
which is the most abundant collagen in the skin is the hallmark of intrinsic and extrinsic
aging(Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Therefore, people that experience aging will have a high risk to
get infection, tumor formation (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Their skin will also reduce in strength
and elasticity (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). It is because progressive fragmentation of extracellular
matrix which leads to reducing in the strength of skin favors formation of wrinkle and at the
same time create the environment that facilitates tumor growth and progression (Rittié and
Fisher, 2015).

UV radiation induces production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the absence of UV

radiation, the amount of ROS produced in the body is at low concentration. At low
concentration, ROS does not introduce harmful effect towards the cell. However, in the
presence of UV radiation especially UVA, the concentration of ROS is high and induce several
reactions like illustrating in figure 1. It causes damage to the cell membrane, mitochondria, and
DNA by oxidative stress or oxidative damage (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014). Other than that,
ROS will cause activation of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTKs) signaling cascade like Mitogen-
Activated Protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and Transcription factor activator protein 1
(AP-1) (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Activated MAPK further undergoes a reaction that increase
the amount of AP-1. AP-1 responsible for the reduction of collagen synthesis and increasing of
collagen break down.
 Figure 4 Effect of ROS
ROS leads to oxidative stress and damage mitochondria, cell membrane and DNA. Damage of
mitochondria causes increased production of endogenous ROS like superoxide anion, hydrogen
peroxide, singlet oxygen (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014). It also activates cytokine and growth
factor receptors (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014). Increasing endogenous ROS induce
transcription factor activator protein 1 (AP-1) and NF-kB (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014).
Activation of AP-1 and NF-κB lead to activation of another compound like illustrated in figure
2.
 Figure 5 Oxidative stress
Activated AP-1 and NF-κB control the transcription of Matrix Metalloproteinase tissue (TIMP)
(Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015). TIMP is a protease inhibitor that regulate Matrix
Metalloproteinase (MMP) activity (Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015). Inhibition of TIMP makes
MMP activity increase. MMP in an enzyme responsible for the degradation of collagen.
Increasing MMP activity cause increasing degradation of collagen. Other than that, activated
NF-kB regulate expression of inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1b, TNF-a, IL-6, IL-8,
and various adhesion molecules (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014; Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015).
This cytokine accelerates skin aging (Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015). It causes the releasing of
NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzyme by stimulating inflammatory cells (Kammeyer and Luiten,
2015). In absent of UV condition, the NOX enzyme generates a low concentration of superoxide
anions to destroy bacteria (Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015). However, UV radiation increase
production of NOX enzyme which enhances ROS production in dermal tissue (Kammeyer and
Luiten, 2015). The increase of ROS causes a repetitive cycle of the oxidative cycle and
activation of RTKs. Other than that, the oxidation products of DNA, lipid, and protein oxidation
activate receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase κ (RPTP-κ) (Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015).
RPTP-κ inhibits cell surface receptor which is RTK (Kammeyer and Luiten, 2015). Inhibition
of RPTP produces an effect similar to activation of RTK (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Increasing
activation of RTK cause increasing activation of MAPK and AP-1 and repeat the cycle.

MAPK is one of the RTKs signaling cascades activated by ROS. MAPK activate AP-1
and lead to an increase in the amount of MMP and reduce the amount of precollagen as
illustrated by figure 3. Activated MAPK cause activation of c-Jun (Sabio and Davis, 2014).
Activated c-Jun partner with c-Fos to assembly activated AP-1 transcription factor complex in
the nucleus (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). AP- 1 will stimulate collagen-degrading enzymes like
MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Gelatinase B (MMP-9) and
stromelysin-1 (MMP-3) caused elevated degradation of elastin (Kammeyer and Luiten,
2015).AP-1 also will inhibit transcription of genes encoding procollagens I and III and cause
reduction of procollagens production at the skin (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014; Rittié and Fisher,
2015)(Rittié and Fisher, 2015)(Rittié and Fisher, 2015)(Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Reduction of
procollagen production is by binding of AP-1 to the transcriptional complex that responsible
for procollagen transcription or by blocking the activity of Transforming Growth Factor Beta
(TGF- β) (Han, Chien, and Kang, 2014; Quan and Fisher, 2015). TGF- β act as a regulator of
collagen homeostasis by stimulating procollagens I and III, and reduce MMP-1 (Rittié and
Fisher, 2015). As a result, collagen synthesis increase and break down of collagen is reduced.
UV radiation shifts the collagen homeostasis from production/deposition to degradation (Rittié
and Fisher, 2015). Amount of collagen that breaks down is more than amount off collagen be
synthesized. Collagen deficit occurs. The situation of collagen deficit is called hypocollogenesis
(Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Hypocollogensis differentiate chronologically aging and photoaging
because only photoaging induces hypocollagenesis (Rittié and Fisher, 2015). Mechanical
resistance reduces by increasing the accumulation of fragmented collagen (Rittié and Fisher,
2015). It is because fragmented collagen sustains an endless cycle of oxidative stress (Rittié and
Fisher, 2015). As a result, more collagen is fragmented while less collagen is synthesized.
 Figure 6 Activation of AP-1
Rosa Damascena as an antioxidant agent

ROS play an important role in preventing pathogen invasion, depleting malignant cells and
improving wound healing (Zhang and Tsao, 2016). However, excessive production of ROS can
lead to oxidative stress (Zhang and Tsao, 2016). When ROS accumulate in the body, the body
will start to produce antioxidant to counter the effect of ROS. Antioxidants scavenge these free
radicals (Poon, Kang and Chien, 2015). It protects cells from damage caused by ROS (Poon,
Kang and Chien, 2015). Repetitive stimulation of ROS production like repetitive exposure to
sunlight cause the physiologically produced antioxidant unable to scavenge ROS. It caused
depletion of antioxidant (Panche, Diwan and Chandra, 2016). An antioxidant agent is needed
to reduce the damage that causes by ROS.
 Rosa Damascena contain phenolics and flavonoid which have an antioxidant effect. In
general, antioxidant will bind to the free radical and form more stable and less reactive
radical(M. Asif, 2015; Panche, Diwan and Chandra, 2016). As a result, the amount of ROS in
the dermis is reduced. As ROS reduced, collagen breakdown also reduces. Less wrinkle form
because of wrinkle associated with collagen breakdown.

There are two types of extraction which are extracted from the fresh petal of rose and dried rose
petal (Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). Soxhlet extraction method used for the
extraction(Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). The method of extraction using several solvents
like chloroform, acetone, methanol. and water (Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). All extract
is filtered and evaporated to get dry extract (Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). In order to
determine the best way to extract the rose petal either from fresh rose petal or dried rose petal,
all the extract is analyzed to quantify the amount of phenol and flavonoid. Different solvent use
in the extraction also affects the amount of phenol and flavonoid.

Extractive value of Extractive value of

fresh rose petal (% dried rose petal (%
w/w) w/w)

Aqueous extract 32.68 27.90

Ethanol extract 19.21 15.62

Acetone extract 12.94 8.65

Chloroform extract 4.56 1.10

Table 1 Extractive value of extraction

Fresh rose petal has higher extractive value compare to dried rose petal (Rangasamy and
Namasivaya, 2014). For aqueous extract, the extractive value of fresh rose petal and dried rose
petal are 32.68 % w/w and 27.90 % w/w which recorded as the highest amount of extractive
value (Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). Chloroform extract has the lowest extractive value.
Amount of total phenolic and flavonoid is highest in ethanol extract and acetone extract
(Rangasamy and Namasivaya, 2014). Extraction of fresh rose petal has a higher amount of
flavonoid and phenol compared to the extraction of the dried rose petal (Rangasamy and
Namasivaya, 2014). Therefore, extraction of fresh rose petal. by using ethanol and acetone as
solvents is contained the highest amount of antioxidant agent.

Antioxidant activity measure by using DPPH by adding 0.1 mM of DPPH to the extracts.
DPPH is a stable free radical that able to accept an electron or hydrogen radical to become a
stable diamagnetic molecule (Nimse and Pal, 2015). The % scavenging activity and IC50 value
of extracts were calculated and compared to ascorbic acid. DPPH is a stable radical. Antioxidant
agent is able to reduce the DPPH in the solution. Ethanol extract of Rose fresh petals (IC50 =
19.72±0.20 μg/ml) illustrate a stronger DPPH radical scavenging activity than acetone extract
(IC50 = 25.75±1.49 μg /ml). Hence, it is proven that ethanol extract of fresh rose petal has the
highest antioxidant activity compared to other extraction. Other than that, ABTS also use to
measure antioxidant activity. The reaction of ABTS and potassium persulfate will produce
ABTS+ chromophore. This reaction can be reduced by antioxidant. The result will compare
with ascorbic acid and Trolox.

2.2 SKIN WHITENING (MAEL)

Whitening agent
Skin colour is the one of the main causes of increasing the cosmeceutical products. The
colour of the skin depends on the genes inherited from the parents whether involve either parent
genes or both (Walsh, Chaitanya, Breslin, Muralidharan, & Walsh, 2017). Those who are born
to fair skinned colour will inherit their parent’s fair skinned colour and same goes to the dark
skinned children. The races or nationality are also the reasons why this polygenic inheritance
differs with different parts of countries (Trunet, Meyer, Le Maire, & Vielhaber, 2015). There
are numerous factors that affect the colour of the skin but the genetic factor affects the skin
pigmentation. There are six type of skin colour which are type 1 extremely fair skin, type 2 fair
skin, type 3 medium skin type 4 olive skin, type 5 moderately pigmented brown skin and type
6 markedly pigmented black skin (Damilola & Antony, 2016). The classification of skin colour
is caused by the distribution of the melanin in the skin. Melanin is the vital cause which make
the individuals skin different each other. In fact, melanin is very important to protect the skin
from UV radiation from the sun which are harmful for individual and can cause skin cancer
(Slominski, Tobin, Shibahara, & Wortsman, 2019).

Mechanism of melanin synthesis

Melanin plays an important role in skin colour. Melanin is produced from melanocytes
which is the dendritic cell found at stratum basal layer in bottom of the skin epidermis.
Melanocyte are found between the dermis and epidermis which located at the basal layer and
there are approximately 36 of keratinocytes surrounded one melanocyte (Smit, Vicanova, &
Pavel, 2009). Melanin is produced in the epidermis melanocytes to give pigmentation to the
skin (Pillaiyar, Manickam, & Namasivayam, 2017). The synthesis of the melanin which also
called melanogenesis started with the process of migration and differentiation of melanoblast
become the melanocyte caused by the signals produced by the neighbouring cells such as
endothelins and cadherins. The endothelin and cadherin act as potent stimulator of
differentiation and proliferation of melanocytes (Slominski, Tobin, Shibahara, & Wortsman,
2019). Melanin is synthesized specifically in the melanosomes, the membrane‐bound
organelles, which are transferred to the keratinocytes to protect from UV radiation (Slominski
et al., 2019). Apart from that, there are basal keratinocytes near to the melanocytes with the
ratio of 1:36 (Pillaiyar et al., 2017).
The melanin synthesis begins with the conversion of amino acid L-tyrosine into
DOPAquinone by the tyrosinase enzyme (Figure 7.0). Tyrosinase is an important enzyme in
the melanogenesis which produces two types of melanin, eumelanin and pheomelanin, that
originated from results of hydroxylation of L-tyrosine which is L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
(L-DOPA). The conversion of DOPAquinone from L-DOPA will be proceeded with the action
of mammalian melanogenic enzyme which is almost similar with metalloproteins, TYRP-1 and
TYRP-2 (Jablonski, Chaplin, & Jablonski, 2017). TYRP-1 is proven to catalyse oxidation of
product of DOPAchrome decomposition, dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylicacid (DHICA) and
TYRP-2 is believed to change the DOPOquinone to the eumelanin (Mello, Finlay, Baguley, &
Askarian-amiri, 2016). Both enzyme which are TYRP-1 and TYRP-2, very important by
changes the DOPAchrome and DOPAquinone to the eumelanin to complete the melanin
synthesis (Rosa et al., 2017). The series of reaction in synthesizing the melanin that catalyzed
by the specific enzymes are happened in the melanosomes of melanocytes and the enzymes
production is induced by the MITF transcription factor whose activity is regulated by a number
of signaling pathways including PKC (brown), cAMP(blue), MEK (purple), and WNT (orange).
As mentioned before, there are two products of melanogenesis which are eumelanin and
pheomelanin. These two products provide pigmentation of the skin such as eumalanin gives
brown-black colour while pheomelanin has red-yellow colour. The variation of the colours
create different kinds of skin colour of individuals depend on their inheritance and ethnicity.
Those who has large amount of melanin tends to have a darker skin and both melanin play a
vital role in the human skin pigmentation (Mello et al. ,2016). Individual who produces more
pheomelanin compared to eumelanin will have a fairer skinned as the pheomelanin can increase
the rate of carcinogenesis. Thus, by inhibiting the function of the tyrosinase, TYRP-1 and
TYRP-2 in the regulation of melanin synthesis, it will provide an alternative for the researchers
and scientists to prevent the hyperpigmentation.
 Figure 7.0 Synthesis of Eumelanin and Phoemelanin (Adapted from: Mello et al. ,2016)

Whitening agent by rose

Whitening process is highly associated with the melanin in the skin. The regulation of
melanin synthesis needs to be controlled or more specifically to decrease the amount of melanin
production by the melanocytes to obtain the fairer skin. In order to lower down the number of
melanin produced, the process of melanogenesis must be stopped by altering the melanosome
formation and inhibit the action of tyrosinase enzyme (Ong & Maibach, 2017; Zuo et al., 2018).
The melanosome is the site where the tyrosinase changes the amino acid phenylalanine to
DOPA quinone. Thus, inhibition of the enzyme will significantly reduce the amount of melanin
in the skin. The enzyme tyrosinase, TYRP-1 and TYRP-2 can decelerate the melanin production
(KIM, JOO, Yongin-si, & Gilheung-gu, 2017). Recently, there are many products are
manufactured to provide this activity. In addition, many plants are claimed to have benefits in
reducing the amount of melanin hence give whitening effect to the skin
 Rosa Damascena which also known as white rose, possess whitening agent. The white
rose extracts specifically from the petals itself contain the tyrosinase inhibitor which play the
vital role in melanogenesis inhibition (Figure 8.0). White rose petals have enzyme (WRPE-
enzyme) which is capable to act as tyrosinase inhibitor besides providing inhibitory effects on
MMP-1 and elastase. By comparing the combination of white rose petals extract enzyme with
the ethanol (WRPE-EtOH) and high temperature-high pressure condition (WRPE-HTHP), both
combinations showed positive results but WRPE-HTHP indicated higher efficacy. This can be
seen from the result that WRPE-EtOH can potentially inhibits 80% of the enzyme activity
similar degree to that obtained with 500µM vitamin C 9 (Choi et al. ,2015). Tyrosinase inhibitor
enzyme capable in supressing the action of tyrosinase to produce the two types of melanins,
eumelanin and pheomelanin (Suk et al., 2016).

Figure 8.0 Inhibition of tyrosinase enzyme

White rose petals extract contain many phenolic compound which can interrupt the
tyrosinase activity. The phenolic compound have hydroxyl group which could form hydrogen
bond at the active site of the enzyme, hence decrease the enzymatic activity of the tyrosinase
(Silva et al., 2017). From that inhibition process, the pheomelanin and eumelanin cannot be
produced to colour to the skin (Figure 9.0). Thus, it is scientifically approved that tyrosinase
was remarkably inhibited by WRPE. Apart from that, 3,5-di-O-methyl-gartanin compound also
derived white rose flower was believed to have anti-tyrosinase besides preventing MMP-1
activity (KIM et al., ,2017). Gartinin compound which is found in the WRPE enzyme is a
member of xanthones and a polyphenol. The gartanin derivatives in the WRPE able to inhibit
tyrosinase activity but need to do further study Choi et al., (2015). The mechanism of the
gartinin inhibits the tyrosinase are not clearly and scientifically found but the result of the
suppressing action by the compound can be experimentally approved.

Figure 9.0 Mechanism of WRPE Enzyme

2.3 PERFUMERY(NISA)

Essential oil
 Essential oils derived from various parts of plant which can be either from leaves,
flowers, seeds, fruits, roots and stems (Zuzarte & Salgueiro, 2015). As regard to this, the oils
will be concentrated at distinct part of the plants. For instance, bay oil comes from the leaves
named as Laurus nobilis, geranium oil is extracted from either leaves or stalks, cumin oil made
up from seeds, vertiver oil comes from roots of grass of Vetiveria zizanoides, ginger oil from
rhizom and rose oil been extracted from the petals of the flower (Worwood, 2016). The
production of these essential oils will be stored in the secretory structures of plant which have
distinct in several terms such as structure, morphology, distribution and function. The complex
mixture of essential oils are comprised of volatile (approximately 100 u) to non-volatile
(approximately 300 u) compounds which are colourless, have strong fragrance and soluble in
organic solvents but not in water. Basically, essential oils made up from small lipophilic or non-
polar molecules which can easily penetrate human’s skin (Sarkic & Stappen, 2018).

Role of essential oil as perfume

From the past few decades, essential oils have become a great interest in human life and
been used for numerous aspects, not only in cooking but also in pharmaceutical and
cosmeceutical field. For example, essential oils been used as perfumes, medicines and also in
burial ceremony of mummification by ancient Egyptians. Meanwhile, ancient Asia use essential
oils for perfumery and aromatics, specifically mean for therapeutic uses and liturgical, a public
worship that performed by a religious people (Rios, 2016). Thus, essential oils are widely used
by numerous civilizations for their own purposes such as in cosmeceutical, religious ceremony
and also for therapeutic tools. Essential oils are complex compounds with aromatic structure
that are highly volatile liquid and derived from living organisms and been extracted by physical
methods, either distillation or pressing process. The extraction of essential oils can be from a
whole plant or only some part of plant (Franz & Novak, 2016).

Despite of its various functions in human life, essential oil has become the main source
in producing perfumes. Perfumes are very popular from various ages especially among growing
teenagers because they start to take care on appearances including their own bodies’ smell. This
is because, perfumes able to cover up bad smells that may arise due to sweating and it can
preserve the pleasant aroma for longer period. Perfume comes from the Latin word, per fumum.
It been described as a scented mixture through smoke because the earliest scents been utilized
at religious ceremony by burning the aromatic herbs and incenses (Voudouri & Tesseromatis,
2015). The term perfumery can also be used to refer to the art and process that involved
production, purification and consumption of aromatic components in regards to their olfactory
quality (Jung, 2015). Among various types of plants, oil-bearing rose is the most well known in
the production of perfume. Roses undoubtedly one of the most favorite aromatic plants due to
their unique fragrance. However, not all types of roses are considered as scented rose and only
certain species are highly regard for the essential oil production in perfumery. R. centifolia
Linn., R. gallica Linn., R. moschata Herrm, and Rosa Damascena are examples of scented roses
that been used in producing essential rose oil (Morteza, 2014).

Beauty and fragrance of Rosa damascena

Rose is known to be a symbol of love and beauty even from way back in time. It also
became the most favourable ornamental plants due to its amazing appearance as well as nice
scent. Additionally, there are lots of species of roses that can be found over the world and each
of them might give different quality in their fragrance. However, Rosa damascena been chosen
as the best one regardless of those species and popular among cosmeceutical industry. It is also
found to be the most highly-scented rose and has become the most attractive in many fields
including biochemistry, horticulture and pharmacology. Therefore, due to its premier fragrance
quality, its extraction often been used as a base ingredient in various well-known brand of
perfumery including Givenchy, Refan Bulgaria Eau De Parfum, Miss Dior, Rosense, Tom Ford
Noir and Infusion de Rose. Besides that, oil rose also found to be able in producing other
products beside rose oil which are rose water, rose concrete and rose absolute (Kamran Javed
Naquvi, Ansari, Mohd. Ali & Najmi, 2014). Rose water was used in wedding as a symbol of
love and purity by scattering it during the ceremony. Moreover, it also be used to help in
meditation and prayer in some religion. However, rose water mainly be used in cosmeceutical
as whitening creams and cleanser for face.

Cultivation and production of Rosa Damascena

Rosa Damascena is a wild plant and originated from Damascus, Syria (Mohamed
Shohayeb, Abdel-Hameed, Salih Bazaid & Ibrahim Maghrabi, 2014). Even though it was
originated there, it already been cultivated in other countries as well. For example, Taif is one
of the country that produce high quality of essential oil derived from species of Rosa
Damascena. However, France, Bulgaria, Turkey and India are known to be the popular
countries that making rose essential oil for perfumery as compared to others (Mohamed
Shohayeb, Abdel-Hameed, Salih Bazaid & Ibrahim Maghrabi, 2014). Apart from that, Turkey
and Bulgaria are known to be among the top ranking cultivators of Rosa Damascena because
almost 3 tan of essential oil been produced in order to fulfil the world demand every year (Baser
& Arslan, 2014). This clearly proved that Rosa Damascena is not only planted in Damascus,
but also been cultivated in various different countries for the sake of cosmeceutical
development.

Bioactive compounds in essential rose oil

 The fragrance of rose oils is due to the presence of bioactive compounds found in the
extracted rose petals. Odour carriers and odour fixators are two groups of compounds that were
found in hydrodistillated rose oils and terpene alcohols are the main elements found in rose oils
that responsible for their scent (Atanasova et. al., 2016). It is found that terpene alcohols
represents almost 56% of the total amount of substances. Apart from that, aliphatic
hydrocarbons is also found in the rose oil by chromatographic profile with 31% of total amount.
This compound is mainly for odour stability of essential rose oil. Furthermore, it was found that
sweet, strong and floral fresh rosaceous character of rose oils are due to combinations of
farnesol, citronellol and nerol in the content of high geraniol. In overall of this studies, there are
several major constituents that been identified in the sample of rose oils which are β-citronellol
(31.15%); trans-geraniol (21.24%), n-nonadecane (8.77%), n-heneicosane (9.05%),
phenylethyl alcohol (4.16%) and nonadecene (4.55%). To conclude, these are all chemical
compositions that were found in the essential rose oil throughout the experiments.

Production of rose oil

Production of essential oil involves several processes including harvesting the oil from
the rose petals which is one of the important elements that may give great impact towards the
quality of the extracted oil. Basically, accumulation of oils can be found on the surface of rose
petals and it can evaporate quickly especially when whether with low humidity and dry winds
(Vesselin & Tolina, 2014). Thus, harvesting rose petals must be done on a specific time in order
to get a better quality of rose essential oils. In addition to this, only fully matured roses will be
harvested before they been stored in refrigerator and supplied to the market (Leghari et. al.,
2016). Besides of harvesting process, environmental factors such as water stress and
temperature, also play essential role in producing high quality of rose oil even though the
production of floral scent and its composition been controlled genetically (Morteza, 2014).

Generally, production of essential oils are mostly derived from plants sources which
happen by either distillation process or cold pressing for peel oils from citrus fruits. Distillation
process can be further divided into different types which are hydrodistillation that involve the
presence of water, steam distillation and high-pressure steam-type distillation that apply high
temperature that lead to less time of distillation. Among those three type of distillation
processes, steam distillation is the most suitable method for the production of essential oils
when involving with large scale production (Karl-Heinz, 2016). However, hydrodistillation is
the most applicable process in producing essential rose oil. It cannot be distilled by steam
distillation because flowers tend to aggregate and lead to the formation of lumps (Erbas &
Baydar, 2016). Essential oils will be produced by different biosynthetic pathways with different
primary metabolic precursors (Zuzarte & Salgueiro, 2015).
 There are several steps involved in producing essential rose oil by distillation process.
Firstly, rose petals are soaked in water and undergo distillation process in various containers’
sizes of 1, 2, 5 to 10 m3. In this process, the distillates will undergo phase separation of water
and oil (direct oil) inside a flask named as Florentine. Next, second distillation process will take
place in order to yield the contents of water phase which are dissolved polar compounds and
emulsified oil (Atanasova et. al., 2016). This type of process will involve the action of
cohobation which known as ‘water-oil’ and rose water. The term cohobation is defined as a
process of returning the condensed water to the still from the separator (Rios, 2016). The main
objective of this process is to prevent the loss of hydrosoluble compounds. This process will
only be conducted once the solubility of that particular essential oil in water is high, particularly
in the case of rose, lavender or geranium. Finally, after cohobation process, the final product of
rose oil will be formed when the mixture of two types of oil occur. These steps of distillation
process in production of essential rose oils can be further understand based on the picture
illustrated in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10 Process in producing essential rose oils (from Zielinski, 2019).

3.0 CONCLUSION (PIQAH)

In conclusion, Rosa damascena have various benefits in cosmeceutical industry such as
an anti-ageing agent that results from the presence of the anti-oxidant compounds which are the
phenolics and flavonoid compounds. The accumulation of ROS will accelerate the skin ageing.
These compound will bind to ROS, and form more stable and less reactive radicals. The reduced
amount of ROS will cause reduced collagen breakdown thus, less wrinkle form. Additionally,
R. damascena also exhibits whitening agent. Whitening process in the skin is related to the
melanocyte. Decrease amount of melanin production by melanocyte will cause the skin to be
fairer. The specific target in order to achieve the reduced melanin production are by altering the
melanosome formation and inhibiting the action of tyrosinase. R. damascena extracts from
petals contains WRPE-enzyme that capable to inhibit the action of tyrosinase. Besides, this
enzyme also also provides inhibitory effects on MMP-1 and elastase. R. damascena extracts
also have phenolic compound and 3, 5-di-O-methyl-gartanin compound that may interrupt the
tyrosinase activity. Perfumery is also the cosmeceutical benefit that exhibits by R. damascena.
Commonly, it is used as a base in perfumes due to its highly-scented property. Terpene alcohols
in R. damascena oil is the main elements that profoundly responsible for the scent property.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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