2 Hydraulic engineering

Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Content

Basic principles of open-channel flow 072

Consistent with most text- hydraulic radius
books, the GUNT experimental wettet perimeter
flumes teach the fundamentals typical flume profiles
of open-channel flow using an
experimental flume with rectan- Uniform discharge in a rectangular flume 074
gular cross-section. Flow formulae
In the first part of this section
Steady discharge 075
we present the basics principles continuity equation
of open-channel flow. Parallel Bernoulli’s equation
to this, we show how certain specific energy
issues and phenomena can be
implemented by experiment. In Non-uniform discharge in a rectangular flume 076
principle, these explanations flow transition
apply to all GUNT experimental specific energy diagram
flumes and their accessories. specific force diagram

Determining the loss of specific energy in a hydraulic jump 078

Froude number and critical discharge 079

momentary and permanent disturbance
hydraulic jump at different Froude numbers 081

Positive and negative surges in open channels 082

In nature, watercourses represent “open-channel flow”. For Famous examples are ancient water systems (aqueducts)
Energy dissipation 084 centuries, humans have been making structural interventions or agricultural irrigation channels extending over very large
stilling basin to watercourses: irrigation systems, flood protection and utili- distances: the “Levada” in Portugal (below).
sation of rivers for navigation and power generation.
Control structures 086
Flow over weirs
• overfall condition at the weir 086
• flow over fixed weirs 087 Frequently used formula symbols
• overfall types 088
• calculation of discharge after Poleni 088
E specific energy
ogee-crested weirs 089
sharp crested weirs 090
broad-crested weirs 091 ΔE loss of specific energy
siphon weir 092
gates 093 h discharge depth

Culvert 094 hc critical depth

Local losses in flumes 095 hd downstream water discharge depth

piers
ho weir head
Methods of discharge measurement 096
flow-measuring flumes hu upstream water discharge depth
measuring weirs
J energy grade line
Transient flow: flow-induced vibrations 098
vibrating piles
Q discharge
Sediment transport 099
bed-load transport v flow velocity

Transient flow: waves 100 W height of weir

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Basic principles of open-channel flow

Open-channel flows are widely spread. Typical examples include There are essentially two types of open-channel flow:
rivers and canals, drainage channels, gutters, water rides at
Typical flume profiles
• uniform flow (the discharge depth (water depth)
amusement parks or sewerage. The driving force of this normally
remains equal; acceleration = deceleration) In most cases an approximation of the respective cross-section In the case of a rectangular cross-section, these variables are
turbulent flow is gravity. Open-channel flows are characterised
of an open-channel flow can be illustrated with only a few geo- defined as follows:
by their free surface. Compared to pipe flows, open-channel • non-uniform flow (the discharge depth is changed
metric profiles. Circular, semi-circular, square, trapezoidal and
flows have one more degree of freedom as a result of the free by acceleration or deceleration) • flow area A = bh
combinations of these profiles are perfectly suited to making the
surface.
The discharge can be either subcritical, critical or supercritical. flume easier to model and calculate mathematically. It is often • wetted perimeter P = b+2h
important to determine the discharge Q and the discharge
• hydraulic radius R = A/P = bh/(b+2h)
depth h at defined locations. Typical variables for calculations
In wide, shallow flumes the hydraulic radius R
are the flow area A (or the area of flow), the wetted perimeter P
therefore corresponds to the discharge depth h.
and the hydraulic radius R.
In the case of artificial flumes, such as ducts, the hydraulically
efficient profile is an important variable – an optimum profile
design saves materials and costs:
• given discharge Q + energy grade line J:
determine minimum flow area A
• given discharge Q + flow area A:
determine minimum energy grade line J.

1 2

Optimal hydraulic flume cross-section

4 5 6
In the case of the smallest wetted perimeter, based on the given area, we refer to the optimal hydraulic cross-section.

1 rapidly varied discharge under a gate, 2 gradually varied discharge, 3 hydraulic jump (rapidly varied), 4 weir overfall (rapidly varied),
5 gradually varied discharge, 6 non-uniform flow at a change of slope

h
h = b/2 b h = √−3b/2 90°
60°

b b

Rectangle, trapezoid with 60° angles, triangle; h discharge depth, b flume width

GUNT experimental flumes have a rectangular cross-section. In the surface and roughness. A large number of experiments on
addition to being able to install different models, they also allow uniform and non-uniform open-channel flow, including measure-
the user to change the slope and the flume bottom, affecting ment of flow velocity v and discharge depth h, is possible.

HM 162.77
Flume bottom
with pebble stones

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Uniform discharge in a rectangular flume Steady discharge

I II I Course of the water surface profile in

the control volume for different steady
Q=0 discharges:
Q<Q n Q = 0: no discharge
JW
Q=Q n Q < Qn: decelerated discharge
h v
Q = Qn: uniform discharge, also called
JS Q>Q n normal discharge
Q > Qn: accelerated discharge

L0

I non-uniform discharge, II uniform discharge; The specific energy is defined as

h depth of discharge, JS uniform bottom slope, JW slope of water surface profile, L0 length of the flume with bottom slope,
JS and constant width, v flow velocity, red frame control volume When considering energy head on the control volume we can
resort to Bernoulli’s equation and the continuity equation. v2 Q2
E = h + −−−−−− = h + −−−−−−−−
2g 2gh2
Continuity equation:
In uniform open-channel flow the discharge depth h remains cases is the discharge depth h. In uniform open-channel flow
equal, i. e. parallel to the bottom. This also means that the flow the energy grade line J is equal to the bottom slope JS and thus Q = const = AV = bhv or bh1v1 = bh2v2 It is composed of the velocity head and the
velocity v remains constant. equal to the discharge depth h. In uniform open-channel flow pressure head.
the normal discharge prevails, i.e. the bottom slope JS balances Bernoulli’s equation (general conservation of energy): Another form of notation is:
The discharge depth h can also be described as a pressure head
out the friction losses in the discharge Q. The energy grade line,
(a component of the specific energy). These energy heads are
water surface profile and bottom slope are all parallel. 1 Q2
often applied in the form of what are known as grade lines. In −−−−− mv2 + mgh = const h3 -Eh2 + −−−−−− = 0
the energy grade line J the most significant component in many 2 2g

Expressed with energy head we get: As a result we get a third-order equation for the
discharge depth h. The discharge depth h depends
v21 v22 on the specific energy E and the discharge Q or on
energy grade line J: hv/L=(E1-E2)/L −−−−− + h1 + z1 = −−−−− + h2 + z2 + hv with friction loss hv the slope and roughness respectively.
J hv 2g 2g
v21 / 2g
slope of water surface profile
Jw: [(h1+z1)-(h2+z2)]/L Q
JW 2
v 2 /2g With v = −−−−− from the continuity equation we get:
bh
h1 bottom slope Js: (z1-z2)/L
Etot1 According to Bernoulli, the total energy Etot 1 Q2 1 Q2
h2 −−−−− −−−−−−−−−− + h1 + (z1 – z2) = −−−−− −−−−−−−−−− + h2 + hv
JS Etot2 is composed of three components: 2 gb2h21 2 gb2h22
• velocity head (v²/2g)
z1 For normal discharge:
z2 • pressure head (h=p/ρg)
• elevation (z) h1 = h2, thus hv = z1 – z2
L

Flow formulae
Flow formulae describe the relationship between the discharge Q Commonly used formulae for general flumes are
and the discharge depth h at a given shape of cross-section and • Darcy-Weisbach
roughness characteristic. The shape of cross-section is taken
• Manning-Strickler (also Gauckler-Manning-Strickler).
into account in the hydraulic radius; the discharge depth  h
comes into play via the energy grade line J. Flow formulae are based on empirical values.

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Non-uniform discharge in a rectangular flume

In many cases the discharge Q in a flume is not uniform. We Subcritical discharge has a large discharge depth h at smaller
distinguish between gradually and rapidly varying discharge. flow velocity v. In supercritical discharge the opposite is true:
Relationship between momentum equation, specific force F and discharge depth h
small discharge depth h and large flow velocity v.
• gradually varying discharge: the discharge depth h
The third important equation after Bernoulli and the conser- fore only the forces acting on the flow areas come into play: the
varies, the discharge Q or type of flow itself is (initially) The flow transition from subcritical to supercritical discharge
vation of mass is the momentum equation. The equilibrium of static pressure force and the dynamic motive force. The specific
subcritical. Gradually varying discharge occurs for occurs with a continuous change of discharge depth h, flow
forces is established at the control volume. In many cases, the force F is the sum of these two forces and is determined by the
example, in a slightly sloping flume with considerable velocity v and specific energy E, for example with an increase
influence of the weight and the friction force is negligible. There- momentum equation.
surface roughness. in the slope.
• rapidly varying discharge occurs for example during The flow transition from supercritical to subcritical discharge,
flow over weirs. In many cases the discharge is super- on the other hand, always occurs with an abrupt change in the
critical. discharge depth h and a loss of specific energy ΔE, such as in a
hydraulic jump.
E1
F1
Relationship between discharge Q, specific energy E and discharge depth h E2
FG FR
F2 Forces occurring at a control volume
F1 , F2 force of the water on the flow areas,
v21 /2g L E1 , E2 specific energies of a control volume,
FG weight,
FR friction force
E1
h1 v1 v22 /2g
E2 The specific force can also be represented in a diagram. The diagram, there is the minimum specific force Fmin at critical
Energy heads of a control v2 specific force diagram plots the discharge depth h over specific depth hC. For all other specific forces there are two sequent
volume
h2 force F at constant discharge Q. Similar to the specific energy depths.
velocity head (v²/2g),
pressure head (h), L
specific energy (E)
h Q=const

Considerations of the energy head at the control volume For all other specific energies there are two alternative depths h1
result in a third-order equation for the discharge depth h. The that are relevant from a physics point of view (see diagram with Specific force diagram
discharge depth h depends on the specific energy E and the hydraulic jump). The correct one of the two discharge depths
discharge Q. A specific energy diagram shows the discharge has to be calculated in each case (is there subcritical or super- h discharge depth, hc critical depth,
hc h1 sequent supercritical depth for specific energy E1,
depth h graphically as a function of the specific energy E at critical discharge?).
h1 sequent subcritical depth for specific energy E1,
constant discharge Q. The minimum specific energy Emin only Fmin minimum specific force,
The maximum discharge Q at a given specific energy E can also h1
has one possible discharge depth, which is known as the criti- F specific force;
be determined.
cal depth hC. Critical discharge prevails at the critical depth hC.
Fmin F1 F subcritical discharge,
supercritical discharge

h
Q = const

h1 h
Specific energy diagram h'2
h discharge depth, hc critical depth,
h1 alternative supercritical discharge depth, h2
for specific energy E1, hc Specific energy loss in the hydraulic jump
h1 alternative subcritical discharge depth,
hc for specific energy E1, h1 supercritical discharge depth,
Emin minimum specific energy, h'2 alternative subcritical discharge depth to h1
E without energy head loss,
h1 E specific energy; E2 ΔE
h1 h2 actual, sequent subcritical discharge depth after
Emin E1 E subcritical discharge, E1 hydraulic jump,
supercritical discharge ΔE loss of specific energy

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Determining the loss of specific energy in a hydraulic jump Froude number and critical discharge
At the hydraulic jump a supercritical discharge Q becomes sub- is retained, which means that there are two sequent depths h
critical again. The discharge depth h rises rapidly and increases for the same specific force F. The ratio of the sequent depths h1
after the hydraulic jump. Energy is dissipated at the hydraulic and h2 is described by the following formula:
jump due to the resulting turbulence. However, the momentum hc hc hc
h v hc v v
h
−−−−−−
h2
h1
1
−−−−− = −−−−
2 (√ )
8 Fr12 + 1 – 1 or
-h1
h2 = −−−−− +
2
√−−−−−−−−−−−
h12 v12
−−−−−− + 4h1 −−−−−−
4 2g 1 2 3

v
Using the given specific energy diagram and an analogue specific force diagram, it is a simple matter to determine the resulting
specific energy loss ΔE graphically: v v

h h 1 2 3

Top: behaviour of the discharge depth h of an open-channel flow with permanent disturbance,
bottom: propagation of a surface wave after a momentary disturbance (red dot, blue lines = disturbance fronts)
1 subcritical discharge, 2 critical discharge, 3 supercritical discharge
h2 3

hc Subcritical discharge Supercritical discharge

1 h1 Disturbances in the discharge behaviour are noticeable Disturbances in the discharge behaviour are not noticeable
upstream. The flow velocity v is less than the propagation veloc- upstream. The flow velocity v is greater than the propagation
2 ity c of a surface wave. Subcritical discharge usually has a large velocity c of a surface wave.
ΔE E F discharge depth h at low flow velocity v.
The Froude number describes the ratio of flow velocity v to
Critical discharge propagation velocity c of a surface wave and therefore serves
as a measure of subcritical or supercritical discharge. The same
Disturbances in the discharge behaviour are not noticeable
Froude number means a dynamically similar open-channel flow.
upstream. The flow velocity v is equal to the propagation veloc-
Specific energy diagram Hydraulic jump Specific force diagram
ity c of a surface wave. Fr < 1: subcritical
Fr = 1: critical
Fr > 1: supercritical

The discharge depth h1 is entered in the specific energy diagram equal (conservation of momentum). Then the discharge depth h2
and the specific force diagram (points 1 and 2). To determine the is entered in the specific energy diagram (point 4). The specific
h Q=const
discharge depth h2 after the hydraulic jump, the sequent depth energies E1 and E2 are read in the diagram. The specific energy
to h1 is determined graphically in the specific force diagram loss ΔE that occurs in the hydraulic jump is equal to the differ- Open-channel flow has many similarities with
(point 3). The specific forces F1 in point 2 and F2 in point 3 are ence between the specific energies. compressible flow. In both cases there is a
Fr<1 dimensionless number (Froude or Mach) that
characterises the flow. Many of the differences
between subcritical and supercritical discharge
Fr = 1
The resulting specific energy loss ΔE can also be
calculated using the following formula: ΔE = E1 - E2 =
( )( ) v12
h1 + −−−−−−
2g
v22
- h2 + −−−−−−
2g
Fr >1
have analogies in subsonic and supersonic flow.

E
Specific energy diagram with Froude number
h discharge depth, E specific energy, Fr Froude number

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Froude number and critical discharge

h h

h1
h2

Q
Q hc
Sill (HM 162.44) h2

hc
h1
Δz E2 Δz

E1
E1
Effect of a sill, shown in the specific energy diagram
subcritical discharge, supercritical discharge, critical discharge (dashed line).
From a given specific energy diagram, we can simply read or calculate the new discharge depth h2 according to the sill.

Hydraulic jump at a weir Hydraulic jump in a washbasin

Critical discharge (Froude number = 1)
Illustration of the hydraulic jump at different Froude numbers
At the minimum specific energy Emin, the discharge depth h propagation velocity c is equal to the flow velocity v. Also, at this
corresponds to the critical depth hc. At this point, the Froude point the specific force F in the flume is minimal.
number is Fr = 1, there is a prevailing critical discharge and the

1 undulating jump
1 Fr = 1...1,7
hc hc

3-4 hc
1 2
Examples where critical depths
(critical discharge) may occur
2 weak jump
2 Fr = 1,7... 2,7
hc 4 1 critical depth near free overfall,
hc 2 change in the bottom slope,
3 flow over a broad-crested weir,
3 4 hydraulic jump
3 oscillating jump
3 Fr = 2,5...4,5
Type of flow Discharge depth Flow velocity Slope Froude number

Subcritical discharge h > hc v < vc J< JKRIT Fr < 1

4 steady jump
Critical discharge h = hc v = vc J= JKRIT Fr =1 4 Fr = 4,5...9,0

Supercritical discharge h < hc v > vc J> JKRIT Fr >1

√−−−−−−
−Q− 5 strong jump
3 2 v
−−−−−
For rectangular flume hc = vc = √ ghc Fr = −−−−−−−−−−−
gb2 √ gh 5 Fr > 9,0

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow
Open-channel
Positive and negative surges in open channels

The phenomena of positive and negative surges in an open

channel describe waves caused by a sudden change in the
As a first approximation, positive and negative surge heights are
equal in size and can be calculated using the continuity equation.
flow in the lab
discharge. In pipes, there is the similar phenomenon with water In the case of a sudden opening (left illustration) we refer to a
hammers. The sudden change of the discharge may occur for discharge surge and fill surge, and in the case of closure (right
example, when opening and closing a gate or switching off illustration) we refer to backwater surge and downstream
turbines. The positive surge wave is formed steeply (propaga- negative surge.
tion velocity of the wave increases with increasing water depth),
while the negative surge wave is rather flat.

Δh Δh

vW vW
Δh Δh

h1 vW vW Aalto University
h1 Finland
Q1 , v1 Q2, v2 Q1 , v1 Q2, v2

Positive and negative surge waves on sudden operation of a gate

left opening the gate, right closing the gate;
Q discharge, h discharge depth, Δh positive or negative surge height, v flow velocity,
vw propagation velocity of the wave;
Index 1 variables before the disturbance, Index 2 variables after the disturbance,
positive surge wave, negative surge wave

Federal Waterways Engineering

and Research Institute
Germany

University of Southampton
United Kingdom

Positive surge wave

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Stilling basins have the following functions:

Energy dissipation
• stabilisation of the hydraulic jump at a defined location It is important that the hydraulic jump does not migrate out
Supercritical flow often also has a high flow energy, which is Excess energy can be found at the following locations: (depending on discharge depth h and/or backwater of the stilling basin into the downstream water, where it may
composed of the kinetic energy necessary for further flow and conditions in the downstream water, the position of the cause scour. A slight backwater is recommended to avoid this
• at cross-sectional constrictions, e.g. weirs, gates
excess energy. The excess energy can lead to erosion of the hydraulic jump may vary) from happening. The ratio of the actual discharge depth h to the
• in spillways chutes/steep slopes
bottom, amongst other things. Therefore it is important to dis- theoretically required discharge depth req. h can be used as a
• upon change in the discharge depth due to obstacles • in addition to the hydraulic jump, further energy dissipation
sipate this excess energy. This can be realised in the hydraulic measure of the backwater in the stilling basin.
through structural elements such as baffle blocks, sills
jump mentioned above (naturally occurring or intentional in a
The stilling basin can be made more efficient through various
stilling basin) or in specially designed overfalls (stepped, ski jump • protection of the flume bottom against erosion and scour
design measures. It is possible to widen the flow cross-section
style). A spillway fitted with a ski jump results in a free jet that formation (funnel or kettle-shaped deepening in the flume
or to use what are known as chute blocks.
sprays into the air and that has dissipated its energy after hit- bottom)
ting the bottom (see photo below left). In GUNT experimental flumes, chute blocks and sills can be
• conversion of the water’s excess energy (kinetic and
installed on the bottom of the stilling basin. These energy
potential) into thermal and sound energy; good energy
dissipation elements support the energy conversion and
conversion occurs at Froude numbers from 4 to 8.
dissipate excess energy more quickly.

v20/2g ΔE 1
ho
ΔE 2
Q req. h2
E Q v21/2g
hd
vu
W h1 a
h2 hd
h1
1 L

Elements for energy

Q dissipation HM 162.35
hd
h2

L1 L2 h1

Supercritical flow at the overflow weir with subsequent energy dissipation in the stilling basin
2
ho weir head, vu upstream water flow velocity, W height of weir, E specific energy, Q discharge, h1 smallest discharge depth,
h2 discharge depth after hydraulic jump, hd downstream water discharge depth, L1 length of weir body, L2 length of stilling basin,
ΔE dissipated energy (specific energy loss); dashed line energy line

Q
hd >req. h2
h1

3 L

Stilling basin designs

1 basin with end sill, 2 trough-shaped, 3 flat;
a positive step, Q discharge, L length of the stilling basin,
h1 discharge depth at the beginning of the stilling basin,
h2 sequent depth in the hydraulic jump,
hd discharge depth in downstream water,
HM 162 with ogee-crested weir HM 162.32 and Ogee-crested weir req. h2 theoretically required discharge depth
sills from HM 162.35 HM 162.32

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Control structures
Control structures are common elements in flumes and are Real control structures consist of the following components: We can essentially distinguish between three different types Sharp-crested weirs are preferred for measuring weirs.
used for the following purposes: of weir: Ogee-crested weirs are often found being used as a retaining
• damming body (generates increase of water level);
weir and flood overflow. Broad-crested weirs are often used as
• raising the water level, for example creating a sufficient can be fixed, movable or a combination of both • sharp-crested
a sill and overflowed structure.
navigable depth for ships, use of hydropower, erosion
• stilling basin: energy dissipation of the discharge • ogee-crested/rounded (free-overfall weir)
protection due to lower flow velocity These three weir types are all considered in the GUNT experi-
• bed pitching in the upstream and downstream water, • broad-crested mental flumes.
• controlling the discharge
structural connection (weir sidewalls)
• measuring the discharge
• structures for ecological consistency
Typical control structures are weirs or gates. The difference
between the two is whether the water flows over (weir) or
under the structure (gate). There are fixed or movable control
structures. Gates are usually movable; they can regulate the
water level and discharge. Possible movements are: lifting,
retracting, rotating, tilting, rolling or combinations of these.
Weirs can be constructed as a fixed or movable weir. Fixed
weirs cannot regulate the water level, offering the advantage Overfall condition at the weir Control structures: flow over fixed weirs
that they do not contain any moving parts prone to failure and
requiring intensive maintenance. A special form of the fixed weir There may be two overfall conditions present at a weir. In the
is the siphon weir (see page 92). case of free overfall, the upstream water remains unaffected by
the downstream water. There is critical discharge at the weir
There is a flow transition from subcritical to supercritical ho ZH
crest. The weir crest is above the downstream water level. The
discharge in the area around the control structure. weir is called a free overfall weir. 1
In submerged overfall the upstream water is affected by the 2
downstream water. The weir acts like a submerged weir and in E
many cases is completely under water.
3
In the case of free overfall, weirs remove any connection
between the water level in the upstream water and the water
level in the downstream water. As soon as the downstream
water has accumulated to the weir crest to the extent that the
critical depth over the crest is exceeded, there is submerged
overfall.
4

Simplified control structure:

ogee-crested weir with stilling basin
1 weir crest, 2 weir body, 3 rounded weir outlet, 4 stilling basin; ZH highest top water level, ho weir head, E specific energy;
basic triangle of the weir as an aid to design
ho
ho hc hw > hc
Fixed weirs are often used to retain a river. The weir itself con- USA, by the US Army. The WES profile design does not assume
sists of a massive damming body. The applied moment of the a design discharge. Usually discharges smaller than the design
water pressure is compensated by the weight of the dam discharge flow over the weir. The weir is therefore optimised
Q hd wall. For this reason, weirs are normally constructed so that for a slightly smaller discharge. For discharges that are smaller
W W the outer contours roughly correspond to a triangle. The weir than or equal to the “chosen design discharge”, the discharge
downstream sides can be designed to improve flow, in order to profile remains stable and nappe separations can be avoided.
achieve the largest possible discharge Q. A hydraulically good With the design discharge, small negative pressures occur at
discharge profile is the WES profile, which was developed at the the downstream side of the weir, but these do not represent a
Waterways Experimental Station in Vicksburg, Massachusetts, danger to the weir.
1 2

1 free overfall, 2 submerged overfall;

W height of weir, ho weir head, hc critical depth, Q discharge, hd downstream water discharge depth, hW discharge depth at weir crest

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Control structures: types of overfall at the weir Control structures: ogee-crested weirs

There are two types of overfall: sharp-crested overfall and Fixed ogee-crested weirs are the preferred weir to be used as On the ogee-crested weir HM 162.34 from GUNT the pressure
hydrodynamic overfall. In both types of overfall, the overfall a retaining weir and flood overflow. They usually have a spillway distribution is measured along the weir downstream side and
condition can be free or submerged. for optimum flow, such as the WES profile. displayed directly on eight tube manometers.
In the case of sharp-crested overfall, it is important that the
nappe is aerated so that it falls freely. Lack of aeration may result
in disturbances and thus to reduced discharge.
In hydrodynamic overfall at a fixed weir, it is important that
nappe separations (reduced discharge) and excessive negative
pressures (risk of cavitation) are avoided.

Sharp-crested overfall at a measuring weir

Control structures: calculation of discharge at the weir

Calculating the discharge plays a key role in flow over control From the Bernoulli equation we can see that the specific
Q < QB Q = QB Q >> Q B
structures. To calculate the discharge we use the Poleni equa- energy E can be calculated from the kinetic energy (velocity of
tion. For a weir with free overfall: approaching flow vu) and the discharge depth hu in the upstream
water. In many cases vu is relatively small and is ignored. +P
2 −−−−−−− In the GUNT experimental flumes, the models studied are
Q = −−−− μbho √ 2gho
3 approached normally, i. e. perpendicular to the flow direction. +P +P
−P
The weirs considered all belong to the group of fixed weirs.
μ is a factor that takes into account the weir geometry (see In practice there are also lateral weirs, which are used as
1 2 3
table), b is the weir’s crest width, ho the weir head. flood spillways. Lateral weirs are installed parallel to the flow
direction. Lateral weirs are also fixed weirs.
In submerged overfall the equation is supplemented with a
reducing factor that is taken from appropriate diagrams.
Hydrodynamic overfall on the ogee-crested weir, pressure distribution on the weir crest at different discharge
Discharge coefficient μ for weirs with different shaped crests 1 nappe lying on the crest, 2 weir downstream side roughly corresponds to the contour of the free nappe,
3 nappe lifts off where appropriate; Q discharge, QB design discharge
Design of the weir crest μ

broad, sharp-crested, horizontal 0,49…0,51

broad, well-rounded edges, horizontal 0,50…0,55

broad, fully-rounded weir crest, 0,65…0,73

realised by a shifted weir flap

sharp-crested, nappe aerated ≈ 0,64

ogee-crested, vertical upstream and inclined downstream face 0,73…0,75

roof-shaped, rounded weir crest 0,75…0,79 Pressure distribution on

the ogee-crested weir
HM 162.34

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Control structures: sharp-crested weirs Control structures: broad-crested weirs

There is also free and submerged overfall in the case of a sharp- Typical variables include the height of weir W, the weir head ho Broad-crested weirs are overflowed structures that are used Once ho / L is < 0,08, friction losses can no longer be ignored
crested weir. For the optimal discharge at a sharp-crested weir, above the weir crest in the upstream water and the discharge in rivers where there is little variation in the discharge and only and the weir body is too long to be used as a measuring weir.
portant that the nappe is aerated. Ambient pressure
it is important depth hd in the downstream water. TogeTogether with the width of a rather small top water level is desired. They can also be the At ho / L > 0.5, i.e. short weir bodies, the streamlines do not run
prevails at the top and bottom of the aerated nappe. the weir b these variables are entered ininto the Poleni equation foundation for a movable control structure. horizontally and the pressure distribution is not hydrostatic, so
(p. 88) to calculate the discharge. Some variables are included that we cannot use the calculation approaches presented in
Broad-crested weirs are characterised by a short section of
indirectly in coefficients or reducing facto
factors. this brochure.
almost uniform discharge with critical depth occurs on the weir
crest (see illustration). In this section, there is a hydrostatic For ecological reasons, a broad-crested weir is rarely used as
pressure distribution. The streamlines extend almost horizon- a sill in rivers. Instead, a ramp is built so that fish and other
tally. These conditions apply as long as the ratio of weir head to aquatic creatures can swim upstream.
weir length ho / L is between 0,08 and 0,5. Broad-crested weirs
GUNT experimental flumes facilitate the investigation of various
with these dimensions can also be used as a measuring weir.
broad-crested weirs and the their respective discharges Q.

HM 162.30
Set of plate weirs,
four types ho v2 = vc
hu v h2 = hc
u

3 2 W
v2U/2g
ΔE 1
Aerated free overfall at a L
ho sharp-crested weir
vu v1 Sill HM 162.44
v21/2g 1 weir, 2 nappe, 3 draw down; Broad-crested weir
hu
vu velocity in the upstream water, vu upstream water flow velocity,
1 v1 velocity in the nappe,
W hu upstream water discharge depth,
hd hd downstream water discharge depth, W height of weir,
h1 ho weir head, hc critical depth,
hu upstream water discharge depth, L length of weir;
W height of weir arrows indicate streamlines

hu
hd ho Crump weir HM 162.33

ho /L= 0,50

ho
hu
Submerged overfall
1 at a partially submerged sharp- L
crested weir,
2 at a fully submerged sharp-crested ho /L= 0,08
2 weir (undulating discharge)
Broad-crested weir HM 162.31

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Control structures: siphon weir Control structures: flow under gates

The siphon weir is a fixed weir. The illustrations below show If the water level of the storage lake falls again so that it is below
the hydraulic principle of the syphone when used as a flood the edge of the inlet lip, air is sucked into the siphon and the v2U/2g
overflow. siphon vented. This abruptly stops the flow of water.
ΔE 1 E
When the water level of the storage lake rises just above the The discharge can be interrupted at any time by an additional
weir crest of the damming body, the siphon comes into play, soon device for venting. GUNT siphon weirs have air vents to allow a hu v21/2g
hu hu
resulting in free overfall. If there is a slight increase in water level, comparison of the function and discharge capacity of the siphon hd hd
i.e. a slight increase in discharge, the nappe deflector directs the weir with and without venting. a a
h1 h1 a
water jet to the siphon hood. This leads to an evacuation in the
Siphon weirs can only be adjusted to a limited extent and
siphon duct, resulting in the discharge pressure in the pipe with
cannot be overloaded. In the past they were often incorporated 1 L 2
full flow. This discharge pressure has a high discharge capacity,
as spillways in dams on the basis of their high specific discharge
which only increases a little with rising water level.
capacity.

Discharge under a sluice gate

Discharge under a radial gate
Siphon weir at rest Siphon weir starting up “Active” siphon weir 1 free discharge, 2 submerged discharge;
1 (max. discharge) hu upstream water discharge depth, a gate opening, hd downstream water discharge depth, hu upstream water discharge depth,
5 h1 minimum discharge depth, a gate opening, hd downstream water
ZH L position of the minimum discharge depth, E specific energy, ΔE loss of specific energy discharge depth
ZS 4

Gates may be subject to either free or submerged discharge, in Gates are movable control structures, i. e. the gate opening  a
3
a similar way to flow over weirs. Discharge leads to jet contrac- and thus the discharge Q is altered and adjusted to actual
tion, also called “vena contracta” (minimum discharge depth h1). needs. In practice, there are therefore characteristic diagrams
Free discharge prevails as long as the discharge passes under which show the discharge Q (upstream and downstream water
the gate without disturbance and the downstream water does discharge depth hu and hd and gate opening a are given).
2 not form a backwater to the gate. In free discharge, there is
One type of gate commonly used in practice is the circular radial
supercritical discharge directly downstream of the gate.
gate used to control discharge. It can be rotated about a bear-
In a similar way to the flow over weirs, the free discharge Q is ing point. The radial gate is often placed on the weir crest of a
Principle of a siphon weir calculated from Bernoulli’s equation, the momentum equation control structure. Flow does not just go under the radial gate,
1 air vent, 2 weir body, 3 nappe deflector, 4 siphon duct, 5 siphon hood; and the continuity equation giving but can also go over into a flume (radial weir).
ZS top water level, ZH highest water level
GUNT experimental flumes allow the installation and investiga-
−−−−−−−−− tion of a flat sluice gate and a radial gate.
Q = μba √ 2ghu

where μ = discharge coefficient, b = gate width, a = gate opening.

Siphon weir
HM 162.36

Sluice gate HM 162.29 Radial gate HM 162.40

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Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Culvert Local losses in flumes

Culverts are crossing structures in Local losses result from changes in cross-section (constriction, From a hydraulic point of view, there are four general cases for
running waters and allow the passage Discharge type 1 sills, flow-measuring flumes), changes in direction and obstacles. piers which class the discharge behaviour as without obstacles,
of water. They may be pipes that are full flow through culvert, Obstacles in flumes include piers for bridges or weirs. Piers con- i.e. as normal discharge. The four general cases are:
laid under a road, allowing the flume to upstream and downstream strict the flow cross-section possibly leading to back eddies or
• subcritical discharge with little or considerable reduction of
cross. of culvert Fr < 1;
hc hc
backwaters.
hu upstream water cross-section
The culvert may be flowed through discharge depth, hC critical hu >hc hd >hc
d • supercritical
s discharge with little or considerable reduction
partially or in full, depending on the depth, Q discharge, Q o
of cross-section
discharge occurring. A partially filled d culvert diameter,
culvert with free surface is treated in hd downstream water Annon-negligible backwater and possibly a flow transition in front
discharge depth 1
the same way as an open channel. By of tthe pier occurs when the specific energy E of the undisturbed
contrast, a full flow through culvert dis
discharge Q is less than the minimum required specific energy
and a culvert in which the inlet is com- Emmin that guarantees the complete discharge Q. As the flow
pletely submerged are classed as con- wid
width brest of the flume through the obstacles decreases, Emin
trol structures. These result in a lim- increases
inc (see illustrations).
iting of the discharge. There may also
For rectangular flumes with a broad cross-section we get
be a combination of these two states, hc hc
so that the culvert is sometimes fully Discharge type 2 hu >hc hd >hc

√−−−−−−−−−−
−−Q−−
flowed through and sometimes par- d h1 =d<hc
full flow through culvert, Q 2
tially filled. upstream of culvert Fr < 1, Emin = 1,53 2
immediately downstream of gb rest
For various reasons, culverts are not culvert Fr > 1 2
ideal from a hydraulic point of view:
they cause flow losses, are vulnerable Pie with a rectangular profile, with a rounded profile and a
Piers
to blockages (rubbish, sediment), can tap
tapering profile are studied in GUNT experimental flumes.
cause scour at the inlet and outlet and
– in the event of floods – are often too Set of piers HM 162.46
Discharge type 3
small. Furthermore, they are difficult
Q
for aquatic creatures to pass through. partially filled culvert, here
Bridges are a much better alternative with flow transition in the hc
inlet and downstream of d hc
from a hydraulic point of view, but of hu >hc h<hc hd >hc
culvert; also possible: Δz ΔE
course much more expensive. continuous discharge with
E Discharge at the rounded pier
without flow transition
Fr < 1 or Fr > 1 3 Ed
E specific energy with pier,
Q discharge,
hu hd Ed undisturbed specific energy,
Emin Emin minimum required specific energy,
hd downstream water discharge depth
(normal discharge),
Discharge type 4 Q h'c hu upstream water discharge depth with pier,
hc hc
hu >hc hC undisturbed critical depth,
submerged culvert inlet hc
h‘C critical depth with pier,
with discharge control; d hd >hc hc Δz pier backwater,
Q h<hc
flow transition also possible ΔE loss of specific energy
in culvert, so that culvert is
partially filled 4

E
Δz
ΔE

Ed
Emin
hd

Q hu h'c hc
hc

Discharge at the rounded pier

Culvert with flow transition
HM 162.45

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Methods of discharge measurement

The two most common methods of determining the discharge of a flume are
Measuring weirs
flow-measuring flumes and measuring weirs. In both methods, there is a
fixed relationship between discharge depth h and discharge Q.
Measuring weirs are usually sharp-crested weirs. They have a simple
design, require little space and are relatively easy to construct.
Flow-measuring flumes
Measuring weirs are used in order to determine the discharge Q.
Venturi flumes are specially shaped flumes with defined lateral contrac- The quantity is measured by detecting the weir head ho upstream of the
ho
tion, sometimes also with a shaped bottom. The constriction dams up the weir. There must be a minimum distance of 3ho between the measuring vu
discharge Q. The backed-up water ensures that subcritical discharge occurs point and the weir. To convert the weir head ho into the discharge Q,
in the flume. The constriction is where acceleration (including flow transition) there are approximation formulae that take into account the geometry W
from subcritical to supercritical discharge takes place. Critical discharge is of the measuring weir and the discharge coefficient according to Poleni.
present at the narrowest cross-section. This results in a hydraulic jump in the Measuring weirs always have free overfall.
expansion section of the venturi flume. The discharge Q is calculated from the
discharge depth hu in the upstream water. Sharp-crested weirs in the form of plate weirs exist with different
geometries, such as:
The GUNT venturi flumes have a flat bottom. Aerated free overfall at the
• rectangular weir according to Rehbock sharp-crested weir
To prevent distortions to the measurement in the venturi flume, it is essential Use at relatively uniform discharge of more than 50m³/h, but
that discharge is free. The discharge depth hu in the upstream water should reduced accuracy in the lower part of the measuring range. vu velocity in the upstream water,
not be affected by the downstream water. ho weir head,
The rectangular weir requires guaranteed aeration.
W height of weir
• v-notch weir according to Thomson
Use with varying discharges (0,75...240m³/h);
high measuring accuracy for smaller discharges.
Parshall flume Venturi flume
HM 162.55 HM 162.51 • trapezoidal weir according to Cipoletti
Use at relatively uniform discharges greater than 125m³/h.

1
Parshall flumes are venturi flumes with a profiled bottom. The ratios of
constriction and enlargement are defined. Parshall flumes are commercially
available as a complete component including a discharge curve (discharge Q
as a function of the discharge depth hu in the upstream water). They are widely
used in North America.

Rectangular
2 weir with 2
A
contraction
according to Rehbock
1
Q

Trapezo o
Trapezoidal
Trapezoidal flume HM 162.63
weirr ac
c
according
tto Ci
Cip
C
Cipoletti
B Trapezoidal flumes are another type of flow-mea- 3
suring flumes. The flow cross-section is triangular
hu or trapezoidal with smooth walls. In contrast to V-notch
Parshall flumes, they often have a smaller pres- weir
sure head loss for the same discharge and are according
to Thomson Rectan
Rectangular
more suitable for small discharges. Flow over typical measuring weirs in side and plan view
weir
A plan view of venturi or Parshall flume, B side view of a Parshall flume; Flow-measuring flumes are mainly used in waste- 1 rectangular weir without contraction,
1 narrowest cross-section, 2 hydraulic jump; water treatment plants because they are well 2 v-notch weir according to Thomson,
hu upstream water discharge depth, Q discharge suited for contaminated water. They can be easily 3 trapezoidal weir according to Cipoletti
maintained. Plate weirs HM 162.30

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2 Hydraulic engineering
Open-channel flow
gunt
Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Transient flow: flow-induced vibrations Sediment transport

In addition to the flowing water, almost studying the flow behaviour in flumes, it is In the case of normal discharge, in addi-
Jetties or drilling platforms usually stand The vibrations are caused by the inter- The GUNT model HM 162.61 “Vibrating
all flumes include sediment transport bed-load transport that is the predomi- tion to the equations detailed above, it is
in the water on piles. Flowing water action between the moving fluid and the piles” enables the observation of a single
that affects the flow behaviour. Sediment nant component. Sediment that is depos- also necessary to consider the transport
exerts forces on the part of the piles that pile. For example, flow around a pile can vibrating pile. Furthermore, there are two
transport consists of suspended-load ited (siltation) or removed (erosion and/ balance on the control volume – is the
is located under water, possibly causing lead to the formation of a Karman vortex parallel piles that stand transverse to the
transport and bed-load transport. or scour) may, for example, change the same amount of sediment that leaves the
vibrations. We distinguish between vor- street. The detachment of these vortices direction of flow, and which are made to
Suspended matter are solids that are flow cross-section or the water surface control volume, also fed back in?
tex-induced and flow-induced vibra- causes a change in the flow direction. vibrate by the flow. The distance between
suspended in the water and that have profiles. Sediment transport also results
tions. It is important to deal with these In the worst case the vortex shedding the piles can be varied. If the distance is The GUNT experimental flumes use
no contact with the bottom. Bed load in a modified bed structure (formation of
forces and the stresses caused by them, frequency corresponds to the natural too small, there will be coupled vibrations sand to demonstrate sediment trans-
on the other hand, consists of solids ripples or dunes, change of roughness).
since they can lead to component failure. frequency of the pile. between the two piles. port. In addition to the sediment feeder
that are moved along the bottom. When
at the inlet of the experimental flume, a
sediment trap is integrated at the end
of the experimental flume. Depending
on the flow velocity, ripples can occur
or a wandering dune may be observed.
Together with other models, it is possi-
ble to observe siltation against a weir or
scour formation at the stilling basin.
Essentially, the topic of sediment
transport is studied in depth in
several independent trainers, for example
HM 140 or HM 168.

Sediment feeder HM 162.73 • Sediment trap HM 162.72 at

the outlet of HM 162

Vibrating piles HM 162.61 Vibrating pile

Sediment discharge on groynes

Siltation in
the Rhine

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Basic knowledge
Open-channel flow

Transient flow: waves

The free surface of the water is “deformed” by the wind (waves). The study of the formation and effect of waves is an important
In nature, there is a wide variety of waves (long or short wave- field in maritime navigation, coastal protection and in the design
lengths, breaking or smooth, etc.) Natural waves are irregular, of offshore systems (wind farms, drilling platforms). In coastal
for example a flat wave follows a high wave (amplitude). Aside protection in particular, it is a matter of reducing the destruc-
from wind-induced waves, there are also surface waves caused tive power of waves and the washing away of sediment.
by a disturbance, positive and negative surge waves and tsu-
The GUNT wave generator produces periodic, harmonic waves
nami waves, which are caused by an increase in the water, such
in the GUNT experimental flumes. For example, we can observe
as during an earthquake.
wave reflection at the end of a flume. Together with the various
Waves carry energy, but no mass. When a wave reaches shal- beach simulations, it is possible to observe and compare the
low water, such as near the beach, it is slowed down. The wave behaviour of the same waves on different beds.
trough is slowed more than the wave crest. Therefore, the wave
The run-up on piers, for example in a harbour basin or as part of
crest overtakes the trough and the waves break.
an offshore system, can be observed with the HM 162.46 piers
accessory.

1 λ
Δh c Wave period T = −−−−−− = −−−−−−
f c

λ
Shallow water Deep water
h

Wavelength λ / h > 20 λ/h < 2

Wave velocity c= √−gh−− c= √−−−−2π

−−
gλ
−−−−−
Periodic wave
Δh amplitude, h average depth, linear circular
Particle path
c propagation velocity of the wave, λ wavelength

Wave generator Set of beaches HM 162.80

HM 162.41 (plain beach, permeable beach and rough beach)

100