ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Knowing the truth that Practical education is far better than theoretical knowledge”,our college
has electronics project where students get to know how to deal with various circuits and projects
that may come in future life as an electrical engineer.As a project we were given to prepare and
simulate the sun tracking solar project.It was really a hard task but due to the special guidance
and help from my teachers and friends I was successful in doing it right.
So,for the precious help and suggestion and providing us the pdf ,I would like to offer my
gratitude to our teacher Mr.Pradeep Bajracharya.
Lastly,I would like to thank respected teachers of our electronics lab for providing us with well-
equipped lab and favourable environment for practical education.
Rupak Mandal
072/BEL/331
CONCLUSION
Project’s conclusion
Hence, by using the operational amplifier as the inverting amplifier and the summing amplifier
the water level detector was developed. When the tank is full, the op amp acts as the summing
amplifier and when the tank is empty it acts as the inverting amplifier. The op amp as the
inverting amplifier is used to drive the motor on and as the summing amplifier it is used to drive
the motor off.
Limitations
Here, the voltage drop across the motor is about 12V only. This voltage level may not be
sufficient to pump the water to the desired height. Also, the used motor is dc in nature and the
power supply for domestic purpose is ac. So, rather than using current from the output of
transistor to drive the dc motor it should be use to trigger the ac source which in turn drives the
ac motor on.
Future enhancement
In the near future, this ckt can be used to pump the water at any height by adjusting the power
supply of the motor. For, this application of the system in practical, the power supply to the
motor must be ac. furthermore this ckt can be use in any field where the level of the fluid is to be
determined to perform various actions.
Recommendation
The circuit though depends on the completion of the circuit using water; the other component of
the circuit need not come in contact. So, it is recommended that the circuit bemade waterproof by
available means to avoid future damaging. The emf preventing circuit is compulsory.
ABSTRACT
Automatic water level controller circuit is a simple engineering project. It can
automatically switch ON and OFF the domestic water pump set depending on the
tank water level. You can implement this motor driver circuit at your home or
college using less costly components. The main advantage of this water level
controller circuit is that it automatically controls the water pump without any
user interaction.
TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………........i
LIST OF TABLES…..........................................................................................i
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………….......i
LIST OF SYMBOLS………………………………………………………......i.
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………1
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……………………………………….......2
3. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………
3.1. Circuit Interpretation with Block Diagram
3.2. Block Wise Explanation
3.3. Circuit Diagram from Proteus (in BW)
4. OUTPUT
4.1. Output in pictorial, tabular or other forms with technical reasoning
4.2. Error, their representation and technical reasoning
5. CONCLUSION
5.1. Project's Conclusion
5.2. Limitation
5.3. Future Enhancement
5.4. Recommendation
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
Background
This project entitles to create a circuit connection by the use of operational amplifiers
operating in different modes as differentiator, integrator, inverting amplifier and inverting
summer in order to construct a working simulation of differential equation solver. The
project is aimed at solving a second order, linear differential equation. The analysis of the
project is done through the oscilloscope so obtained.
Op Amps are of wide use. The abilities of Op Amps to act on various modes provide us
many useful functioning like digital to analog or analog to digital conversion, voltage
clamping, filter, current and voltage regulation and amplification, oscillation and waveform
generation, etc. One of the main uses comes from the early era of Computer history, the
Analog Computers. Analog computers were based on alterable physical or electrical
phenomenon. In electronic circuits, the alterations in voltage or current are observed, altered
preferably and thus made to work. For such cases, the integrators and differentiators can be
widely used.
. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Introduction to Operational Amplifier
Operational Amplifier were primarily used in mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, comparison, multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc. So the term
‘operational’ is used. Since early devices contained vacuum tubes and required high voltages
while operational amplifiers these days’ work on low current can amplify it to relatively
infinite currents and can solve different complex mathematical problems quick.
An operational amplifier (Op Amp for short) denoted with the standard symbol
containing two input terminals: inverting (-) and noninverting (+), and one output terminal.
Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and another negative
although some have a single dc supply. Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the
schematic symbol for simplicity but are understood to be there.
)
Ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain. Also, it has an infinite input impedance (open) so that
it does not load the driving source and zero output impedance. The input voltage difference,
Vin (= Vnon-inverting−Vinverting), appears between the two input terminals, and the output voltage is
Av Vin. A practical op-amp, of course, falls short of ideal standards, but it is much easier to
understand and analyze the device from an ideal point of view and so ideal cases will be used
to understand various modes of operation used in the project.
2.2. Virtual Ground and Negative Feedback
The above mentioned infinite input impedance results in Virtual Grounding. Tis is due to the
fact no current flows in between the input pins meaning no voltage dropped across them so
the potential of one pin becomes zero if another is grounded. Negative feedback is the
process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a
phase angle that opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal. If it is not used even a small
drop in potential across the input terminals tends output to the voltage limits (±V) so the
circuit becomes nonlinear. Therefore, the concept of negative feedback is used which also
provides linear as well as required amplification factor by adjusting the electrical components
used in the circuit.
2.3. Modes of Operation of Op Amp
On the basis of components used, and various applications, there are various modes of
operation of an Op Amp. Used modes in the project are described below.
2.3.1. Inverting Mode
In inverting mode, input voltage is
provided to the inverting terminal
through an input resistance (Rin) and a
negative feedback resistor (Rf) is
connected. Afore mentioned virtual
grounding concept is applied in here
i.e. V2 = 0. So, the current in input
resistance is equal to current in
feedback resistor.
2.3.2. Integrator Mode
In case of integrator
mode, a capacitor is
connected as Negative
feedback and the input is
given from the inverting
terminal while the
noninverting is grounded.
If we apply a constantly
changing input signal
such as a square wave to
the input, then the
capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes in the input signal. This
results in the output signal being that of a saw-tooth waveform whose output is affected
by the RC time constant of the resistor-capacitor combination. Also the current in input
resistor is equal to that in capacitor. So,
V −0 d V out
I ¿= ¿ =I C =−C
R¿ dt
−∫ V ¿ dt
∴ V out =
RC
2.3.2. Inverting Summation Mode
As its name suggests, the
“summing amplifier” can
be used for combining the
voltage present on
multiple inputs into a
single output voltage If
we add more input
resistors to the input in
inverting mode , each
equal in value to the
original input resistor, Rin we end up with another operational amplifier circuit called
a Summing Amplifier. If Feedback resistance is made equal to all the input resistances,
the output will be negative of sum of all the input voltages wile for unequal condition, it
will be as
