Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction:
A Study at an English Department in Indonesia
Ryan Rayhana Sofyan
Murni Mahmud
English Department, Languages and Literature Faculty
of the State University of Makassar, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
The research aims at analyzing teacher talk in classroom interaction based on
Foreign Language Interaction Analysis (FLINT) system in speaking classroom
of English department of Language and Literature Faculty of State University of
Makassar. The method used in this research was a descriptive method. The
instruments were FLINT system. The participants of the research were the
lecturer and students of a speaking class during the second semester of academic
year 2011/2012 at English Department of Language and Literature Faculty of
State University of Makassar. The results of the research are: teacher talk of
giving praises and encouragement is approximately less, the asking questions
category dominate the teacher talk category, which means it is in the beneficial
function. The lecturer asked the questions to the students and the students
responded it well by speaking eagerly. The utterances of giving direction
occurred in relatively short times. While in student talk, there are students’
problems and difficulties in speaking. The extracts of student talk in classroom
interaction revealed the students problems such as the lack of vocabulary,
anxiety, inability to form ideas in English language form, and grammar error.
The teacher talk frequency was still excessive, but the lecturer made group and
pair discussions to balance the effective talk for students in student-student
interaction.
Keywords: Classroom, interaction, FLINT, Speaking
INTRODUCTION
Learning a language is not only to develop the learners’ intelligence, but also
to keep social interaction and emotion. In teaching a language, the main goal
is to develop the learners’ communicative competence. Communicative
competence is ability to create discourse. Interaction may seem as a simple
46 | ELT Worldwide Vol. 1 No. 1
thing to do, but there are many obstacles in building a good interaction in
order to help students developing their speaking skill. Menegale (2008)
found in her research that teachers still dominate the talking time in the
class. It is the most common and conventional custom that happen inside the
classroom in the middle of teaching and learning process. This research is in
accordance to the research finding of Jae-Hwang (2010) that in the
classroom interaction, teacher talk dominates most of the teaching and
learning process in the classroom. The analysis showed that the elicitation,
response and feedback was taken over and used systematically by teacher.
So the students did not have appropriate time and opportunity in expressing
their thoughts and exploring their ideas.
The research was intended to examine teacher talk at the Speaking Class at
the English Department, Language and Literature Faculty of State University
of Makassar. It is hoped that the findings of this research may be used to
improve the effectiveness of the class.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of interaction
Brown (2007) defined interaction as collaborative exchange of thoughts,
feeling, or ideas between two or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect
on each other. The theories of communicative competence accentuate the
role of language use in various context to negotiate meaning in human life.
In other words, to get the idea from someone’s mind into others’ mind and
vice versa.
From the definitions above, I may conclude that interaction is a verbal or
non-verbal relation to communicate meaning between one person to another
or one person to group of people and vice versa or among groups of people.
Interaction can take place in many social context such as business meeting,
leisure gathering, sport and arts activities and educational events. Here,
interaction will be focused on interaction in the classroom that involves
teacher and students in verbal and nonverbal relation.
Teacher Talk in Foreign Language Interaction (FLINT) System
The following are the teacher talk categories as described by Brown (2007).
Deals with feeling
In dealing with students feeling, it is also important to communicate students
past feeling. It is important because their experiences shaped their minds, the
reason behind their feeling in present time, and it helps teacher avoiding
students’ trauma. The understanding from teacher and the right way of
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|47
handling with students feeling will comfort the teacher-students interaction
in the classroom.
Praises and encourages
Teacher activities are not only conducting lesson plan and develop teaching
material but also motivate students to raise their motivation so they can find
and develop their language skill. Motivation for students must be done as
well so the objectives of the lesson are achieved like the way it planned. In
doing their daily activities in the classroom, teacher can support students
with praising, complimenting and tell the students that their ideas and works
are valuable. Students may feel stuck or blank in the middle of their
speaking performance.
Uses ideas of students
Teacher’s attention to students’ contribution is a great appreciation for
students’ works. Some ways in expressing the appreciation, such clarify,
using, interpret or summarize the ideas of students. Teacher can start a
discussion based on students’ ideas by rephrasing them but still recognized
as students’ contribution.
Asks questions
As it brought before in previous pages, questioning in interaction is a way to
stimulate students speaking up their thoughts. There are many ways to
classify the kinds of questions for classroom effectiveness. The questions
can be categorized by the level of the students. Teacher usually begins with
display questions which the answers is common knowledge. The display
questions can be used to provokethe contain of students ideas and their
language form.
Gives information
Giving information is a classic teaching method where teacher gives
information, facts, personal opinion, or ideas about a topic. It is simply gives
students the lecture or asking rhetorical questions. Nowadays, this method is
considered as out-of-date method for teaching and learning process because
students should be active in the classroom. To avoid this kind of method, it
does not mean that the teacher leave the whole classroom activities to the
students. Teacher should conduct lesson plan and develop material so he/she
can stimulate students’ behavior.
Gives directions
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There are many activities can be developed in speaking class for classroom
interaction. Students have good opportunity to explore their ideas. Students
need some direction and facilitation of information on how they should
demonstrate the whole ideas they own systematically. They expect some
direction or command from their teacher. So teacher should direct the
various exercises and facilitate them by giving a whole-class or small-group
activities.
Criticize student behavior
Sometimes in the classroom,there are a few students that are difficult to
handle. In students’ age, there are many internal problems they should face,
such as puberty and unstable emotion. This is when teacher should
communicate anger and so dissatisfaction and annoyance with students.
Teacher should know the way to communicate the emotion atmosphere in
the classroom so teacher can find a solution to solve the problem and build a
positive interaction with students. Teacher’s critics is important for students’
leadership development. Telling the students about incorrect or acceptable
response must be done in positive behavior without letting down the
students’ passion in learning.
Related Research Findings
There are many researchers who have spent their effort in observing
discourse analysis in classroom interaction. Some researchers have
conducted research relating to discourse analysis in classroom interaction.
They are cited below:
1. In Zambrano (2003), the fact from the research expose the cliché
problems in classroom interaction that the teacher talked a great deal.
While students who are suppose to actively speak only had a little time
and opportunity to speak. Hence, the speaking class were not run
appropriately.
2. Hadef (2010) in her research used the ‘dealing with peer interaction’ as
a new method in English teaching. This method help students speaking
English like native speaker. Hadef stated that peer interaction is a way
for students to acquire and develop their English language. Students can
practice the language in their real context through interaction with each
other. The students from her research also agree that this method plays
important role in increasing their motivation which leads them gaining
improvement in speaking skill.
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|49
Based on the previous research findings above, I may conclude that
interaction in the classroom, which is performed by teacher and students
holds important role in teaching and learning process. Besides that, there are
still many issues and problems emerge in classroom interaction.
METHOD
In this part, the researcher explains the research design, research participants,
research focus, research instruments, research data, data collecting
procedures, and data analysis technique.
This research is a case study to analyze the classroom interaction in speaking
class at the English Department of Language and Literature Faculty of State
University of Makassar. The classroom interaction is genuine one as it is
specifically intended for teaching purpose, not for the purpose of facilitating
research. In analyzing the classroom interaction, the researcher employs
qualitative method in order to answer the research question formulated in the
problem statement. As qualitative method, it neither threats the subject nor
manipulate the data taken from the sample, because its main purpose is to
find out the reality in teacher-students interaction in the classroom based on
the FLINT analysis system.
The participants of this research are the lecturer and students of speaking
class registered at second semester of academic year 2011/2012 at English
Department of Language and Literature Faculty of State University of
Makassar. There are four classes registered on English Education Study
Program, namely Class A, B, C and D. The classes are taught by the same
lecturer. Since the classes are relativelyhomogene, the researcher randomly
selected one class to be studied. The selected class is class B. The class
consisted of 35 students. The researcher have observed 6 class sessions by
considering that the amount of observation is enough to portray the
classroom interaction.
RESULTS
Based on the overview from the six meetings of classroom interaction, it
shows that most of the time in each classroom meeting were dominated by
teacher talk.
Dealing with feelings
This first category in FLINT system includes the discussion, acceptance,
referring to and communicating the students feeling in past, present and/or
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future time. As we can see, the classroom discussion depended on the
material the class were having.
Extract 1
T: Hah, really? Aha, and then what did you say?
S: And then eh..I say I’m sorry but he didn’t really believe me and leave
me.
T: Did he also say sorry to you?
S: Yes?
T: Did he say apologize to you?
S: He didn’t apologize to me. Eh..he walk away.
The extract shows the discussion between the lecturer and one of the
students about misunderstanding between the student and his best friend.
The sentences in the extract like “I say I’m sorry but he didn’t really
believe me and leave me” and “He didn’t apologize to me. Eh..he walk
away” were the way of student told his story. He said that his best friend did
not want to accept his apologize, did not trust him anymore and leave. The
lecturer did the discussion and tried to reveal about the story by asking
questions. The questions showed that the lecturer was curious about the story
and the lecturer’s attitude make the student felt accepted and comfortable to
tell what was really happened between him and his best friend.
Praises and encourages
This part of category included the teacher talk of praising, implementing,
encouraging students to continue, trying to give them confidence or
confirming that the answers were correct. There is also a sub-category in this
category which is jokes that attempted to be humorous that was done by the
teacher.
Some extracts below shows the conversation where the lecturer gave praises
and encouragement to the students.
Extract 2
T: You should tell that. That’s a wonderful story. How about you?
S: yes..apa?
T: Your story.
S: [...]
T: [...] So, have you chosen two stories?
S: yes.
T: Okay, two stories.
Extract 2 shows the conversation which is taken from the first meeting. The
lecturer went around the class when the group discussion was held. The
lecturer listened about the student’s story and praised her story by saying
“You should tell that. That’s a wonderful story.” The student asked what
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|51
was that about because she did not know that the lecturer listened to her
story.
Extract 3
I: menurutta, bagaimana dengan memberikan pujian dan dorongan atau
support dalam mengajar?
(In your opinion, how is the praise and encouragement role in
teaching?)
T: iya, jelas sangat berpengaruh. Secara keseluruhan Saya memberikan
nilai biasanya pada akhir pertemuan dan juga pada awal pertemuan,
saya mengatakan pada mereka bahwa mereka harus memiliki
kepercayaan diri dan tidak perlu merasa takut atau hal positif
untuk mendukung mereka dalam berbicara bahasa Inggris.
(Of course, it has effects. Generally, I support them in the beginning of
the meeting. I told them that they should have confidence and should not
be afraid or any positive support for encouragement in speaking)
The data collection in extract 3 is taken from the interview with the lecturer
about the classroom interaction shows that the lecturer rarely gave the praise
and encouragement. The lecturer clarified it in the interview by saying “Saya
mengatakan pada mereka bahwa mereka harus memiliki kepercayaan diri
dan tidak perlu merasa takut atau hal positif untuk mendukung mereka
dalam berbicara bahasa Inggris.”(Of course, it has effects. Generally, I
support them in the beginning of the meeting. I told them that they should
have confidence and should not be afraid or any positive support for
encouragement in speaking). The lecturer’s utterance from the extract above
implies that the encouragement is good motivation for students so they feel
free in speaking English and praise them by giving the appreciation in the
end of each meeting that they have done very.
Using ideas of students
Using ideas of students in this part of category appeared in every observed
meeting. In this category, there are four elements we are going to discuss in
using ideas of students, namely clarifying, interpreting, summarizing and
rephrasing of what the students talk about.
Extract 4
S: Sinetron gives bad effects to young children. I eh [...] with that
statement. You know that, when you are watching TV, the sinetron can
watch for the children eh like simbol B, R = remaja, O = orang tua. So,
when the young children watch eh sinetron for old the old people, it is
give bad effect for young children.
T: So, do you agree with the solution that your group proposed just now
that to limit the time for children to watch?
S: [nodding]
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The conversation in extract 4 shows the clarification made by the lecturer
based on the student explanation about his argument. After listening to the
student’s explanation, the lecturer clarified the idea by saying “So, do you
agree with the solution that your group proposed just now that to limit the
time for children to watch?” and then the student were nodding to justify
the statement. The example of clarifying the ideas of students is taken from
the extract of second meeting.
Asking questions
From the whole classroom meeting, asking question took the most frequent
utterance that the lecturer said. Whether it was to stimulate the students to
talk, to get students opinion or even though to get information from the
students. The extracts below shows the questions asked by the lecturer for
students to stimulate ideas in the students’ speech.
Extract 5
T: Okay, and then we say regret and you also know how to accept the
apology. Okay, “that’s alright”, “that’s okay”, “never mind”. Okay,
and also when you get shocked or surprise of something happen or
serious incident. Okay, now, what you have to do with the member
of..the members of your group, okay, each member tells each other
about your condition when you have to say sorry, okay? Try to
remember something happened to you, probably, last night, or a few
weeks ago, or a few days ago, or even a few years ago. Okay, something
happen that you have to say so sorry or probably you have to accept
someone’s apology. Okay, so each person in the group tells each other
about your story, your experience about so sorry. Do you get what I
mean?
In extract 5, whichis taken from the first meeting, the lecturer gave direction
to the students in doing the activity that day. She explained about the
material and the procedure of the activity of telling story that expressed sorry
feeling. After explaining and directing the students, the lecturer asked the
procedural question: “Do you get what I mean?” The question supported
classroom management and routines that was different from those
concerning the content of learning.
Giving information
The frequency in each meeting were varied and not too many times, but
mostly each talking was longer take more time than the other. The extracts
below shows us the lecturer’s utterance in giving information to the students.
Extract 6
T: I’m sorry to hear about that. Or?
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|53
Ss: [talking together]
T: Oh, that’s too bad. I am sorry to hear it. Next, when you want to
express regret about a minor accident or event. What will you say?
Ss: [talking together]
T: what a shame. Oh, that’s too bad. Or, that’s a shame. Okay, next page.
When we got shocked or surprised of someone’s serious incident. We
say: “what?!” or “How awful”, “how terrible”, “how horrible”.
In the extract, the utterance that was done by the lecturer, we can see the
lecturer delivered discourse described about the topic or material on that day.
In order to get the students understand the direction, there were several
repetitions about the information in one meeting, like “Oh, that’s too bad. I
am sorry to hear it. Next, when you want to express regret about a minor
accident or event.”
Giving direction
Among the whole interaction in the class, giving direction was the clear
category that the lecturer perform to make a classroom activity. Eventhough
the sentences was unclear, it was usually given with gesture.
Extract 7
T: Okay, so that’s the way of eh.. “How to describe people”. Okay, first,
what are the habits or what are the characteristic of the person that
she mentioned? She is calm.
Ss: Calm, smart, like music, like mickey, mickey mouse, polite, sometimes
come late to the class.
T: Any other things?
Ss: Beautiful. eeh, use Honda Beat.
The extract above is taken from the second meeting. In giving direction,
besides using the imperative sentences, the lecturer also used interrogative
sentences to make the students speak up their ideas by saying “Okay, first,
what are the habits or what are the characteristic of the person that she
mentioned?” and added the answer by saying “Any other things?”.
Because directing students to speak cannot only be done by telling them to
but also by asking questions. In fact, by asking questions, the students felt
more liberate to express their ideas.
Criticizingstudents’behaviour
The data collection shows there were 6 times utterances in the first meeting
that indicated criticism. In the second meeting was 4 times, the third
meeting was 5 times, the fourth meeting was 8 times, the fifth meeting was 8
times and the sixth meeting was only once. In criticizing student behavior,
most of the lecturer’s utterances were intended to manage the classroom, to
54 | ELT Worldwide Vol. 1 No. 1
keep the students paying attention and listening to the speaker at that time.
The example of criticizingstudents’ behavior in the extract taken from the
first meeting:
Extract 8
S: [confused] [talking together]
T: Explain please.
S: baca? (read)?
T: No, explain my direction just now. Do you understand?
S: [shaking head]
T: So what’s your question? Do you have any question? What is that you
don’t understand?
S: Understand, mam.
T: Okay, explain to me my direction.
S: Oh..mmm.. eh.. I read my..
T: You pair up..
S: You pair up, and I read to my..
T: Not read. Explain.
S: Explain to my friend and he ask to me about what is he want to know to
my explaining about..
T: And then?
S: And then..the second round..
T: No..that you don’t get. Your friend will retell or explain to me what is
it that you love the most. And after that, I will ask him questions. So,
your partner should know everything about the things or people that
you love the most. Do you understand? Okay?
The extract 8 above that is taken from the fifth meeting shows that the
discussion was stimulated by students’ misunderstanding of lecturer’s
direction. The lecturer criticized students’ behavior by discussing the student
misunderstanding. The lecturer said,“No, explain my direction just now. Do
you understand?” and “So what’s your question? Do you have any
question? What is that you don’t understand?” The lecturer asked the
student to explain about the procedure and when she found the mistake, she
corrected the mistake to avoid the misunderstanding by saying “No..that you
don’t get. Your friend will retell or explain to me what is it that you love
the most. And after that, I will ask him questions. So, your partner should
know everything about the things or people that you love the most. Do you
understand? Okay?”
DISCUSSION
This section presents the discussion of the result of the data collection. It is
aimed at describing the classroom interaction between lecturer and students
based on FLINT system analysis. In this part, the categories are divided into
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|55
three parts; they are teacher talk, student talk and other FLINT categories.
There are also sub-categories that portrayed the whole classroom interaction.
The words and actions of lecturer can act as encouragement when the focus
is on the students and the process of learning, or they can act as praise when
the focus of lecturer attention for outcome of learning. The distinction
between praise and encouragement is important. Praise from the teacher
means that the students have learnt well and it is a very motivate attitude for
them to know that their work are being valued. While encouragement help
the students with low achievement to learn (Brown, 2007).
The role of praise and encouragement in motivating students to learn is
crucial as Thomas in Burnett (2002) referred praise as the positive
reinforcement to stimulate desirable behavior. He also suggested that praise
could be motivational tool in not only classroom interaction but also teacher-
students relation by describing behavior or assignment that merits the praise,
mentioning student’s name, and choosing the praise word carefully.
Using ideas of students in classroom discussion is one way of
encouragement for students to be confident and to show them that their ideas
are valuable. In most meetings that I have observed, the lecturer clarified and
repeated the response verbatim. There are several items in using ideas of
student such as clarifying, interpreting, and summarizing students’ ideas. In
extract 4, using ideas of students’ category shows the clarification made by
the lecturer based on the student explanation about his argument. After
listening to the student’s explanation, the lecturer clarified the idea. This
show the lecturer appreciation of the students’ ideas and tried to custom the
students to listen to the better sentence. As it is clarified by ENC (1995) that
teacher can help students to gain their intellectual identity by respecting their
ideas and encourage their independent thinking.
In asking questions category, we found the three types of questions. The
extract 1 in asking questions category shows the procedural question that
supported classroom management and routines that was different from those
concerning the content of learning. The fact that asking questions in
classroom interaction dominate the teacher talk is very positive as Cotton
(1983; 3), stated that instruction which include posing questions during
lessons is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction
carried out without questioning students... oral questions posed during
classroom recitations are more effective in fostering learning than are written
questions.
The next three categories of FLINT system considered as a direct influence
in classroom interaction. Giving information to the students refers to the
lecturer explanation about any information that should be delivered to the
56 | ELT Worldwide Vol. 1 No. 1
students in classroom in the teaching and learning process. Giving
information involves giving the students information, facts, lecturer’s own
opinion, lecture and rhetorical questions.
By giving direction, the lecturer can give the students a good opportunity to
practice their English language by giving them direction to do the activities.
To make them practice effectively, the lecturer should put an effort in giving
explanation and clear instruction so they can maintain the attention in
classroom activity. This category involves request and command that
students are expected to follow, directing drills and facilitate the activity. In
the extract 7 in giving direction category, we can see the direction was given
with interrogative sentences. Besides the imperative sentence to direct and
command to the students, there were several request made by interrogative
sentence to confirm an activity.
Criticizing students’ behavior is a natural and common thing that happened
in teaching process. Extract 8 of criticizing students’ behavior, the lecturer
used more intonations in the utterances rather than teacher in school because
the university students are maturer than the school students. Teacher
utterances, attitude and tone in criticizing student behavior refers to
communicating anger, displeasure, annoyance, rejection and dissatisfaction
with students’ attitude. The effort that teacher can do are like rejecting or try
to change the non-acceptable behavior.
CONCLUSION
Teacher talk in classroom interaction of speaking class at English
Department of Language and literature Faculty of State University of
Makassar consists of dealing with feeling, praise and encouragement, using
the ideas of students, asking questions, giving information giving direction
and criticizing students’ behavior. Teacher talk mostly appeared in giving
direction and information, while in discussion the student took most of the
time talking. It seems that the categories such dealing with feeling, praise
and encouragement, using ideas of students, and asking questions are used
by the lecturer to motivate and stimulate the students so they have
opportunities to express their ideas. In fact, the positive ways of the lecturer
delivered her ideas to the students stimulated the students’ active learning. In
active learning, according to Unesco (2006; 32) “there is less emphasis on
transmitting information from the teacher to the student (such as through
lecturing) and freater emphasis on developing students’ analytical and
critical thinking skills, as well as on exploring attitudes and values held
about course material”.
One of the categories in teacher talk, namely dealing with students feeling is
not described clearly in FLINT system. In the data collection, the researcher
Sofyan&Mahmud, Teacher Talk in Classroom Interaction|57
could get transcription of dialog of discussing students feeling because it was
done as the topic of the discussion material. In my opinion, dealing with
student feeling that is described in FLINT system is not appropriate to be
discussed in classroom interaction. The discussion of students’ personal
feeling in anytime and how it affect students’ learning is a personal matter
that need more understanding of the teacher.
Suggestion
Related to the conclusion above, the researcher formulates some suggestions
as the following points:
1. The categories FLINT systems are very helpful to describe the
classroom interaction pattern. Even though dealing with student feeling
category need more consideration.
2. The lecturer should give more praises and encouragement to the
students to stimulate their speaking enthusiasm and build their self-
confidence in speaking up their thoughts.
3. In giving direction, there were several times when the lecturer repeated
the procedure of the activity to the students. In order to make the
students understand about the task, the lecturer should communicate by
asking the students to repeat and re-explain about the lecturer direction.
This way, the lecturer can not only find the misunderstanding and solve
it, but also give the students more time and a good opportunity to speak
up and evaluate the students understanding.
4. The lecturer should put more effort to encourage the students to practice
more outside the classroom. Building a good relation outside the
classroom among the students can result a positive impact in students
self-confidence development. The lecturer should recognize the matters
that interest the students and find relation in improving students
speaking skill and then involve in those matters to participate
contiguously.
5. The lecturer should initiate discussion concerning students’ problems
and difficulties in speaking. By knowing students problems and
difficulties, the lecturer and students can focus to solve those problems
in the classroom and evaluate at the end of each meeting. This
communication helps the students to become aware of their lackness
and by knowing it, the lecturer and students can find the solution to
improve students speaking skills.
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