Samyak A An Institute For Civil Services BEE RAS MAINS - 2013 ANCIENT HISTORY Tea & sftera A wR satya Tete aH, We WE Wee aa SH UA va at HB are B ..., @ SP-21, Above Canara Bank, Ridhi-Sidhi Chauraha, Gopalpura Bypass, Jaipur (© 9875170111, 9414988860 BX samyakjaipur@[Link] ® [Link] @ SAMYAK-An Institute For Civil ServicesSamyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 1 Pre topic: Salient features and Major Landmarks of Ancient India. Chapter : 1. —: Reconstructing history of India :—. Chapter: 2. —:The prehistoric Period Stone Age 12 Paleolithic Age (500,000 B.C.~8000 B.C.) 12 Mesolithic Age (8000 B.C.~6000 B.C)... Neolithic Age (6000 B.C.~1000 B.C.) Chalcolithic Phase... ‘Mains topic: Indian Heritage: Architectrure & Literature from Indus Valley Civilization to British india. Chapter :3.. Indus Valley Civilization, Discovery... Origin of Civilization. Town Planning of Harappan Civilization. Economic Life... Harappan Script... Decline of Indus Valley Civilization .. Pre topic: Art, Culture and Literature Mains topic : Religious Movements and religious Philosophy in Ancient India. Aryans 28 Early Vedic or Rigvedic. 24 Period (1500- 1000 B.C)... Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B. The Vedic Literature.. ‘Mains topic : Religious Movements and religious Philosophy in Ancient India. Chapter :5.. 34 —: Buddhism and Jainism :—.. 34 Causes of Origin 34 WT: 21, ore aa S Gu, we fae, orgy aoe, TaGT aI: 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 2 Buddhism... Jainism. 38 Economic Conditions, Prominent Movements. lajor Dynasties, Their Adi Pre topi Chapter : 6. a2 —: The Mahajanapadas : 42 Emergence of Mahajanapadas.... 42 (6° -5® century B.C.) 42 Magadha Empire (6-4 B.C.) 43 Shishunaga Dynasty .. ae Nanda Dynasty..... —1 State and Society during Mhajanpadas and Buddha Seer Material life. AS, Arts and crafts. 45 Political administration 45 Agriculture. 46 Army and Taxation 46 Social order: 46 Pre topic: Major Dynasties, Their Administrative System. Socio-Economic Conditions, Prominent Movements Chapter: 8.. =: The Mauryan Empi Historical Sources. a7 Origin of the Mauryas 47 Chandragupta Maurya . Bindusara.. Ashoka. Ashokan Edits... Ashoka's Dhamma ..... Mauryan Administration . Art and Architecture Arthashastra Significance of Mauryan Age lajor Dynasties, Their AdAncient History An Institute For Civil Services 3 Chapter : 9. =: The Post Mauryan Period :— .issssssennee The Sunga Dynasty (185 B.C to 73 B.C). The Kanva Dynasty... The Satvahanas or the Andhras.. The Indo-Greeks.. The Sakas or Scythians (90 B.C.) 57 The Parthians 57 ‘The Kushans.. 58 Art and Culture... 58 Crafts and Trade.. Coins... Towns 59 Administration under Satvahanas. 60 Pre topic: Major Dynasties, Their Administrative System. Socio-Economic Conditions, Prominent Movements Chapter : 10. —: The Gupta Perios Chandragupta | (319-335 A.0.) 62 ‘Samudragupta (335-375 A.D)... Chandragupta Il (380-413 A.D.)...... Kumaragupta | (413-455 A.D. Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.) 63 Fall of the Gupta Empire 63 Fahien... 64 Political Organization... 64 Social Organization .. Religio Science and Technology Literature. Artand Architecture 68 Pre topic: Major Dynasties, Their Administrative System. Socio-Economic Conditions, Prominent Movements Mains topic: Indian Heritage: Architectrure & Literature from Indus Valley Civilization to British India. Chapter : 11. 69 WT: 21, ore aa S Gu, we fae, orgy aoe, TaGT aI: 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 4 —: The Post Gupta (7-12 Century) The Pushyabhutis. Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A.D.).... Buddhism during Harsha’s reign... Political Organization and, State Administration... Hieun-Tsang. 71 The Vakatakas. nm The Shakas of Mahishaka 7a The Rashtrakutas .. The Gangas The Palas of Bengal... The Senas... 22 The Chola Empire (9-12 Century) B Chalukyas of Vatapi/ Badami 74 Pallavas of Kanchi. 75 Vijaynagara Empire 76 Bahamani Kingdom 7 The Megalithic Age... The Pandayas... The Cholas.... The Cheras. Trade and administration 80 Sangam Administration... 80 Sangam Literature. 81 Pre topic: Art, Culture and Literature Mains topic : Religious Movements and religious Philosophy in Ancient India. Chapter : 1 Religious Developments:— Vaishnavism. 82 Shaivism.... Shakti Dharma sr 21, ore aa S Gu, we fae, orgy aoe, TaGT aI: 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 5 Topics :— > Stone Age History of our country as we know is based of thousands of studies performed over the acheologogical evidences scattered all round the geographical reach. The ancient Indians left innumerable material remains. These remains are found in the form of mounds. These mounds have been dug vertically and it gives a good chronological sequence of the subsequent material cultures. In dry climatic regions of western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and north-wester India antiquities remain in a state of preservation but in moist and humid Gangetic plains mud structured get difficult to detect. Material rem: s > Burnt Bricks > Pottery > Megaliths > Weapons > Geography Plant reside and pollen analysis > Coins > Inscriptions Literary Sources > Foreign accounts Burnt Bricks: Burnt Bricks structure at such a large scale have servived dating back to 2500 BC in north western India, Pottery: Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and reconstructing the past. Historically with distinct culture, the style of pottery changed. It reflects the soci economic and environmental conditions a culture thrived in, which helps _ the archaeologists and historians in understanding our past. It holds s value in understanding cultures where script was either absent or remains undeciphered. Understanding of presence of fire, cooking, storage, sedentary or migratory populace, social stratification can all be developed via studying pottery. nificant Pottery is majorly of two types: 1, Handmade 2. Wheel thrown Handmade pottery is rather a primitive style pottery developed in early ages which with time transforms to wheel thrown. The different motifs drawn on the surface plays an important role in understanding a culture and beliefs. 1. Ne hic age s is the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is hand-made pottery but during the later period We: SP-21, 37 HS SH, wefas, MoayT AIT, TAB AIH :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 6 Ancient History Features Y Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface ¥ Handmade coarse grey pottery Y Material - clay mixed with mica and sand ¥ Pottery is devoid of any painting Y In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into wet clay for decoration Found throughout India including the South, Burzahom ~ coarse grey pottery Included black-burnished ware, greyware and mat-pressed ware. - Chalcolithic Age Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our country namely - Ahar culture in South Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa culture in Western MP, Jorwe culture in Western Maharashtra, etc, People of this age used different kinds of pottery. * Black and red ware pottery: Black and red ware seems to have been widely used. Cultures like Ahar-Banas showed the presence ofBlack and Red ware pottery with white linear designs. * Black on red ware: Jorwe ware is painted black-on-red and has ‘a matt surface treated with a wash. * Ochre Coloured _ pottery (OCP): OCP people are regarded asthe junior contemporaries of | Harappa. This pottery is identified with the Copper Hoard Culture that was found in the upper Ganga Valley and Ganga Yamuna doab area, © The coluor of the pottery ranges from orange to red. © The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000BC and 1500 BC. © Major sites are - Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (uP) o Ganeshwar, located near Khetri copper mines, was initially believed to have oc. 3. Harappan Civilisation Polished ware pottery with rough surface. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 1 Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed. Pottery is generally has a red surface and a wheel thrown although handmade ones exist too. Polished wares were well fired. In most of the pottery more than two colours are used. Utilitarian pottery with flat bases. Geometric designs alongwith paintings depicting flora and fauna. Perforated pottery also found. Presence of Luxury pottery in certain sites. In mature Harappan period burial pottery is found. In late Harappa period Ochre Colored pottery (OCP) as we all know the late harappan cultures (1900-1200BC) were primarily chalcolithic. Black-grey burnish ware: Swat valley, resembles the pottery from north Iranian plateau, Black on red: Painted and wheel turned, also found in swat valley. Vedic Era -PGW ‘© We see emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture. The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals are absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. On the other hand, the later Vedic sites are considered iron-phase of pcw. © This pottery is an Iron Age pottery in Gangetic plain and Ghaggar Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200- 600 BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site. ‘© These are confined to ~ Punjab, Haryana and Upper Ganga Valley. This culture is associated with village and town settlements (but without large cities). 5. End of later Vedic Era - NBPW © During 6* century BC, 2"! phase of urbanization after Indus valley civilization. © Glossy, shining type. ‘* Considered deluxe pottery only found with the elites. Wet: SP-21, dae Aa Guy, wee fahe, Toray agaTA, TAGT Hy :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 8 © This pottery continued to exist in mahajanpada era. * Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh). © Classified in two groups - Bi- chrome and mono-chrome. 6. Megalithic Pottery found in Kerela ‘© Well baked and durable © They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after death. © Excavated throughout india but majorly found in south, majorly in Vindhyas. Megaliths: Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non- sepulchral) memorials, These are spread across the Indian subcontinent, though the bulk of them are found in peninsular India, concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana According to archaeologists R.K. Mohanty and V. Selvakumar, around 2,200 megalithic sites can be found in peninsular India itself, most of them unexcavated. Even today, a living megalithic culture endures among some tribes such as the Gonds of central India and the Khasis of Meghalaya. Coins: The study of coins is known as Numismatics. The importance of coins as a source of reconstructing history cannot be denied, particularly in case of ancient history where very few chronicles were produced, i. Indus valley civilization: The Harappan Seal is the most distinctive artefact of the Indus iii, Valley Civilization. It was made of a stone called steatite. However, it's believed that it was not used as a coin. It served various other purposes like - sealing a package of trade, as amulets, ete. Janapadas/Mahajanpadas: The earliest account of issuing of coins dates back to the 7th-6th Century BC. These coins were ‘punched- mark’ coins made in silver. They were initially issued by merchant guilds and later, by the state. Post-Mauryan Period: For the first time, we see regular Dynastic coins being issued. The Greeks bring along their old age tradition of issuing coins. They are the first ones to issue gold coins(besides the use of Silver). It is then followed by the Kushan Empire who became the first Indian Empire to issue gold coins around 20 century AD. The Western Kshatrap coins are reckoned to be the earliest coins bearing dates, Largest no of coins were issued in this time. They were made of lead, potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold. Gupta period: The Kushan gold coins subsequently influence Gupta dynasty. They become more rich and elaborate in design depicting a wide variety of events — commemorate dynastic succession, significant socio-political events - like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice, etc. and for that matter artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.) We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 9 v. Since there was nothing like the modern banking system in ancient times, people deposited money in earthen ware and also in brass vessel, and maintained them as precious hoards. Many of these hoards are preserved in museums. Catalogues of coins are present in the Indian Museum at Calcutta. vi. Coins throw significant light on economic history. Some coins were issued by the guilds of merchants and goldsmiths with the permission of the rulers, This shows that crafts and commerce had become important. Coins also contain religious symbols and legends which throw light on the artand religion of the time. Inscriotions are carved on Inscriptio! seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls and bricks or images. The study of Inscription is called Epigrapgy, and the study of old writing used in inscriptions and other old records is called Palaeography. Inscriptions are preserved in the Office of the Chief Epigraphist at Mysore. The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa belonging to about 2500 BC. The have not be deciphered so far. Itis written in pictographic script. The oldest deciphered inscriptions belong to the one issued by Ashoka in third century BC, decipherd by James Princep in 1837. The inscription was found by Firoz Shah Tuglaq in Meerut but couldn’t get it deciphered. Script: Ashokan inscriptions were engraved in Brahmi script, chich was written from left to right, prevailed in whole country, with some exceptions of Kharoshthi script, which was written from right to left. In the north-westen part Greek and Aramic script were employed in writing. Language: The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit language in the third century BC. Sanskrit was adopted as an epigraphic medium in the second century AD and its use became widespread in the fourth and fifth centuries. Most of the inscriptions have been published in a series of collections called Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Post mauryan: Inscriptions of this age were both royal orders and decisions regarding social, religious and administrative matters to official and people in general. Votive records of the followers of — Buddhism, _ Jainism, Vaishnavism, Saivism were mainly the subject in the inscriptions. Some important inscriptionsof ancient india: 1. Junagarh Rock inscription: The Junagarh_ Rock inscription of Rudradaman is considered as an early example of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second century AD. It mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya’s governors, Pushyagupta, was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar. From another inscription of Skandgupta we came to know that We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 10 this very dam was repaired during his reign, almost 800 years after it was built. . Mahrauli Inscription/ garuda pillar: The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi. This pillar credits Chandragupta with conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him. It also credits him for conquest of Vakatkas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu. This pillar was established by Chandragupta-II of Gupta dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu . Allahabad Pillar Inscription (prayag Prasasti): This was issued by Samudragupta and was composed by Harisena. It is written in very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style. It lists achievements of Samudragupta. This Inscription is a eulogy of Samudragupta and mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudragupta defeated 9 kings in North, 12 Kings in South, the Atavika states to vassalage. It also mentions that more than five states in the frontier states accepted his suzerainty. He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of Harisena describ hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably reduced all surrendered and him as Literary Source: first Ashvamedha after Pushyamitra Shunga. He is depicted in his coins playing Veena. He allowed the king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodhgaya. Another term used by Harisena for him is Kaviraja, which testified him as a patron of poetic arts and a poet himself. Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramanka. Nasik Inscription: The achievements of Gutamiputra Satkarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that was composed by his Gautami Balasri. The Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara and Avanti and defeated the Saka King Nahapana and restored the prestige of his dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Satavahana. Nanaghat Inscription: The Nasik and Nanaghat inscriptions are the major sources that give detailed information about the Satavahana Empire. The Nasik inscription was made by Gautami Balasari and Nanaghat inscription was issued by Nagai Mandsaur Inscription: It was by Kumaragupta and was wtirren by Vattasbhatta. mother Although the ancient Indian knew writing as early as 2500 BC, our most ancient manuscript is not older than the fouth century AD. The literature tells about the social life and setting administrative and _ political sources, economy, laws, trading records, ancient philosophy and culture of ancient India, at: SP-21, du ae } oe, aefafe, Togy agare, Tage ave 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services u Geography: This kind of data helps historians to extrapolate the life and predict the happeining of old age. Language: Prakrit Language spread from India to Cenral Asia and most of the Prakrit texts are found there, Sanskrit texts are found in mostly in South India, Kashmir and Nepal. Foreign Accounts: Maegasthenes (Greek) 302-298 BC Fa-Hian (China) 405-411 AD Hiuen-Tsang (China) 630-645 AD I-Tsing (China)671-695 AD Al-Masudi (Arab) 957 AD Al-Baruni (Persia) 1024-1030 AD Marco Polo (Italy) 1292-1294 AD Ibn Batuta (Morocco) 1333-1247 AD 9. Shihabuddin Al-Umari (Syria) 1348 AD 10. Nicolo Conti (Italy)1420-1421 AD 11. Abdur Razzag (Heart) 1443-1444 AD 12. Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 AD) SPNANAwNE * The Indian continent is well defined geographical unit, mostly situated in tropical zone. It is bounded by Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides. Himalayas are high enouth to shild the country against invasions from _ north. However, on the north-west, the Sulaiman mountain ranges which are in southward continuation with Himalays, which could be crossed through the Khyber and Gomal passes. The continuation of Sulaiman range in southward in Baluchistan by Kirthar ranges which could be crossed through the Bolan Pass. These passes allowed two way traffic for traders and invaders between India and Central Asia. The Kashmir and Nepal Valleys were harder to reach only via a few passes became the repositories of the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts. River Valleys: The Indus-Gangetic plains produced rich crops and supported successive cultures. ‘The harappan culture originated and flourished in Indus valley, the Vedic culture originated in the Punjab and flourished in the western Gangetic basin, the post-Vedic culture mainly based on iron, thrived in the middle Ganga basin, the lower Gangetic basin and north Bengal. This region became important in the age if Guptas, and finally the Brahmaputra valley covering Assam gained importance in early medieval times. Rivers: rivers served as arteries of commerce and communication. In ancient times it was difficult to make roads, and so man and materials were transported by Boat. The river routes helped in Military, commercial transport. Rivers also indundated neighbouring areas and made them fertile and also supplied water to canals cut from them, Important towns and capitals such as Hastinapur, Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputra and others are located on banks of rivers. The geographical features like river mountains, dense forests, sea coasts and difficult regions usually formed the boundaries between different settlements. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 12 Topics :— > Stone Age » Paleolithic Age > Mesolithic Age > Neolithic Age » Chalcolithic Phase % The prehistoric period in the history to mankind can roughly be dated from 20000 BC to about 3500-2500 BC, when the first civilizations began to take shape. The history of India is so exception. @ The first modern human beings or the Homo sapiens set foot on the Indian subcontinent anywhere between 2000 BC and 40000 B and they soon spread throughout a large part of the subcontinent, including peninsular India. # They continuously flooded the Indian subcontinent in waves after waves of migration from what is present-day Iran, These primitive people moved in groups of few ‘families’ and lived mainly on hunting and gathering. Stone Age The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. @ = The stone age is divided into three broad divisions-Paleolithic age of the old stone Age (from unknown till 8000 BC), Mesolithic age of the middle some age (8000 BC-4000 BC) and the Neolithic age or the new stone age (4000 BC-2500 BC) on the basis of the specialization of the stone tools, which were made during that time. Paleolithic Age (500,000 B.C.-8000 B.C) The human living in the Paleolithic age was essentially food gatherers and depended on nature for food. The art of hunting and stalking wild animals individually and later in groups led to these people making stone weapons and tools. First, crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as the size of the groups began to increase and there was need for more food, these people began to make “specialized tools" by flaking stones, which were pointed on one end. These kinds of tools were generally used to kill small animals and for tearing flesh from the carcass if the hunted animals The basic technique of making these crude tools was by taking a stone and flanking its sides with a heavier stone. These tools were characteristic of the Paleolithic age and were very rough. By this time, human beings had come to make and use fire. People of this age were called Quartzite men Paleolithic tool, around 100,000 BC, have been found in the chhotanagpur plateau. Tolls belonginf to 25,000-10,000 BC have been found in Kurnool in Andra Pradesh. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 13 Mesoli + Animal remains found in Belan Valley in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh show that goat; sheep and cattle were domesticated around 25,000 BC This took place in Pleistocene period which comes immediately before the current Holocene period. Sites: Lower Paleolithic: Soan in Punjab, now in Pakistan; Belan valley Mirzapur; rock shelters and hand-axes have been found. Middle Paleolithic age: Soan Valley, a crude pebble industry in strata contemporary with third Glaciation period; Narmada and Tugabhadra rivers. Upper Paleolithic: use of blade and burins found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bhipal plateau; cave and Bhimbetka. and Chhotanagpur rock shelters at Age (8000 B. In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharp known as Microliths. To ensure a life that had abundance of food and clothing, the stone tools began to appear in increasingly specialized way. The simple handheld stone tools were now attached to thick branches from trees with rope made from animal skin and sinew. These tools are known as hand axes, which could be flung at fast- moving animals from a distance. They also produced crude stone tipped wooden spears, borers, and burins. This period also saw the domestication of animals and growing of wild varieties of crops. Because of farming, small settlements began to take shape. + + Archaeological excavations. have unearthed Mesolithic sites in the Chota Nagpur area of central India and the areas south of the Krishna River. Neolithic Age (6000 B.C.-1000 B.C.) The Neolithic Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) or the New stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age and is characterized by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins. These stone blades cannot match their smooth surface and cutting edges. The Neolithic age also saw the domestication of cattle, horses and other farm animals, which were used for diary and meat products. An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel. 3 important sites based on axes used by Neolithic settlers. i) North of the valley of Kashmir at a place called Burzahom. People lived there in plateau and pits, they used numerous tools and weapons made of bones and not polished stones. Dogs were buried along with the master in their graves. ii) On the south of River, they usually found settlements over the top of the granite hills or on plateaus near the river bank iii) The hills of Assam and Garo ills in Meghalaya. Some other sited are: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, [Link] and Takkalakota_ in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamilnadu. The Neolithic Age quickly gave way to a number of small "Cultures" that were highly technical. These people copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. This phase of period is termed as the Chalcolithic Age (1800 BC- Godavari used We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 14 1000 BC). A number of such sites have # Animal rearing: Domesticated cows, been found in the Chotta Nagpur plateau sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes, and region, the upper Gangetic basin, hunted deer. People ate beef in this time. Karnataka and near the banks of river In crops they have domesticated Lentil Narmada. (Masur), black gram, green gram, grass Canin Tian Pisce pea, ragi, bajra, ber; linseed and cotton. In eastern India fish and rice was popular # Towards the end of the Neolithic period, diet Injthat part ol the county. metals like bronze and copper began to. # Very little of no use of burnt brick instead be used. This was the Chalcolithic phase Ce reer eeee aera ee (1800 BC to 1000 BC) families, settlement became stable in this 4 Major Chalcolithic cultures wer found in phase are called Jorwe Culture. ee 4 They used stone tools supplemented by a Banas River in Rajasthan, the ‘western little use of copper tools. All communities part of Maharashtra (orwe, Nevasa, used red black wheel turned pots which bain seen avatars aeariemal ana for the first time appeared painted, They Songaon in Inamgaon in Pune and Nasik), sed hots Out ne accu ban the western part. of Madhya Pradesh @- Chalcolithic community established first ana ce nea ee villages in India. They buried their dead eastern part around West Bengal. in pote is|beneath the house Table Phases of palacolithic age ‘Age Tools Climate Site Early Hand axes, leavers and Humidity Soan valley (Punjab) choppers decreased Middle —_Flakes-blades, points, borders and scrapers Upper Scrapers and burin Further decrease in Humidity Warm climate Valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers. Caves and rockshelters of this age have been found in Bhimbetka. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 15 Discovery Origin of Civilization Town Planning Economic Life Harappan Script Decline of Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization Discovery © The Indus Valley civil ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River which is now in Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan civilization in reference to the first excavated city of Harappa @ An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu tion was an lization based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley sites have been found along the Ghaggar- Hakra River. # RB. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. RD. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or “Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these. @ Harappan civilization forms part of the proto history of India i. the script is there, but it cannot be deciphered and belongs to the Bronze Age. # ‘The Indus valley civilization gradually developed to a full-fledged ci which has been established through a continuous sequence of strata named as Pre-Harappan, Early —_- Harappan, ization 1. 2. There are two criteria for civiliz Mature Harappan and Late Harappan stages or phases. It must have cities It must have its own script Origin of Civilization As given by Western historian: + ‘They considered this civilization as an offshoot of | Mesopotamian or Byzantinian civilization and that it originated suddenly. Drawback of this theory is that there is no evidence supporting it. Also Mesopotamian civilization's findings were different than those of the Harappan civilization. As given by Indian historians # The civilization gradually developed and ithad indigenous origin # It evolved from the Neolithic period where agriculture was practiced and surplus grains produced were traded. Geographical Extent # Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of Western U.P. It extended from Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 16 Alamgirpur in western U.P. to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west. # Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on river Ravi in west Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), ete. In India the major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali (Hissar) and Alamgirpur (western U.P). @ = The largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. RS. Bisht were involved in it Sites of the Civilization # More than 250 sites belonging to this civilization have been excavated. # According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500-1750 B.C. # Copper, bronze, silver and gold were known but notiron Town Planning of Harappan Civilization © Towns were planned in a chessboard pattern. # Roads were well cut dividing the town into large rectangular or square blocks, @ Flanking the streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses. @ The city was divided into 2 parts, 1. Citadel — was used by ruling class (Granary, Great bath etc. were part of Citadel) Lower Town — was used by ruled class The houses were built of burnt bricks and were both single and double storeyed. Elsewhere in the contemporary world mud bricks were used en @ = The doors and windows were at the rear of the house instead of being located in front and the doors were at the corner of the walls, with each house having its own bathroom and and courtyard % The streets were straight and cut each other at 90 deg # The drainage system was fully covered which was below the city. It was the most advanced system in the contemporary world. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lighting ‘Some new discoveries Ganverivala in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mugal. Rakhigarhi in Sind (Haryana) by Rafeeq Mugal. Dholavira on bank of river Luni in Gujrat excavated by RS Bisht and JP Joshi is largest and latest excavated site in India. Bhirrana oldest Harappan site has been said to be the mounds of Bhirrana village on the banks of Ghaggar River. Economic Life Agriculture # ‘The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April % The people grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc, The Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. 4 In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs. 4 Domestication of animals was done on a large scale. Besides the cattle, sheep, pigs, camels, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horses weren't in regular use but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in graves in Ropar have been discovered. 4 Produced sufficient to feed themselves. There was no exchange of food grains/export or import. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 17 o Food grains were stored in granaries. E.g. In Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Trade and Commerce o Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter System. Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were generally cubical in shape 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, and 320). Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle- making (famous in Kalibangan), etc. were practiced. Raw materials for these came from different sources: gold from north Karnataka, silver and Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Khetri and Baluchistan, ete. Bead making factories existed in Chahu daro and Lothal. They were items of export. A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports, Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh functioned as outlets The inland transport was carried out by bullock carts. Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem often of a religious character, and a name or brief description, on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets. ‘The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with Meluhha, the ancient name of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material have been found at Mesopotamia. There were also instances of trade with Sumer, Babylonia, Egypt, ete. Imports From Gold Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) Silver Afghanishtan, Persia, South India Copper Khetri (rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia Tin Afghanistan, Biha Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan (Afghanistan) and Sapphire Jade Centra Asia Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta, Kirthar hills Turquoise Iran Amethyst Maharashtra Art and Craft # The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age and bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze, copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan and tin from Afghanistan. # The people of this culture were not acquainted with iron at all. # The Indus Valley people had achieved a great skill in drawing the figures of men, animals and various other objects of nature and were fully conversant with the art of craving with figures on ivory, soap- stone, leather, metal and wood proving their artistic acumen. % Cotton fabrics were quite common and woolens were popular in winter. # One male figure or a statue shows that generally two garments were worn and the female dress was more or less like that of a male. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 18 # The Indus valley people were very fond of, ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze and precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were worn by both men and women, rich or poor. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, figure- rings, girdles, nose-studs and anklets. The Harappans were expert bead makers. @ Pottery was done in this civilization. It was of 2 types: Simple # Simple pottery included glasses, bowls and dishes which were mainly circular, square and cylindrical in shape Black & Red @ Articles made had black backgrounds with red designs Seals of this period suggest that they used wooden carts 4 They also knew the art of ship building # They had very well developed system of both, internal and external trade The Indus Valley Pottery was red or black pottery and the people indulged in dice games, their favorite pastime being gambling. # The red sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. % The most impressive of the figurines is the bronze image of a dancing girl (identified as a devdassi) found at Mohenjodaro. Harappan Seals 4 Maximum number of seals discovered is made of steatite with the unicorn symbol being discovered on the maximum number of seals For their children, the Harappans made cattle-toys with moveable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string, Rel little toy carts and whistles shaped like birds all of terracotta, igious Life The main object of worship was the Mother Goddess or Shakti. But the upper classes preferred a God - nude with two horns, much similar to Pashupati Shiva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, and a rhinoceros and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two deer. Pashupatinath represented the male deity. The elaborate bathing arrangement marking the city of Mohenjodaro would suggest that religious purification by bath formed a feature of the Indus Valley people Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent. Many trees (pepal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorns were also worshipped. However no temple has been found though idolatry was practiced, At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found. Although no definite proof is available with regard to disposal of the dead, probably three methods of disposing the dead - complete burial (laid towards north), burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones or charcoal may however suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus valley culture, the third method was generally practiced. In Harappa, there is We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 19 one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. # The people probably believed in ghosts and spirits as amulets were worn, @ Dead bodies were placed in the north- south orientation. @ It appears from excavations that the people of this culture were well-versed with surgery. For example, some evidences have come from both Kalibangan and Lothal hinting at head surgery. Otherwise, they used to take recourse to black magic, amulets etc. Town Associated with different Industries Daimabad Bronze industry. Lothal Factory for stone tools and metallic finished goods, Balakot Pear finished goods, bangle and shell industry. Chanhudaro Beads and bangles factory. It was the only city without a citadel Harappan Sci @ Harappan scripts were found on its seals and itis pictographic The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’ ¢ Harappan Script is closest to Dravidian script of Munda tribe of Jharkhand. Decline of Indus Valley Civilization @ The Harappan culture lasted for around 1000 years. = The invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods (7 floods), social breakup of Harappans, Earthquakes, successive alteration in the course of the river Indus and the subsequent drying up of the areas in and around the major cities, etc. are listed as possible causes for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. % There are multiple theories proposed by various scholars which explain the decline of this civilization Theory by Mortimer Wheeler % This theory suggested that attack by the Aryans was responsible for the decline = The main drawback of this theory was that it is confirmed that Aryans came to India around 1500 BC whereas Harappan civilization ended by 1750 BC Theory by Riggs # He proposed that the civilization declined due to earthquake which was followed by floods # Evidences of floods have been found in Mohenjo-Daro 4 ‘The main drawback of this theory was that this theory is confined only to certain regions of Harappan civilization and not to all the places where the civilization flourished Theory by Fariservis # He proposed that ecological was responsible for decline of the civilization but failed to provide satisfactory data to prove his theory. Theory by Das and Sood # They proposed that change in course of Indus River was the reason for decline of balance the civilization and as most of the cities were on the banks of river Indus, the civilization was destroyed. Theory by Malik and Pochal # ‘They argued that Harappan civilization was not completely destroyed and there was a link between Harappan and post- Harappan culture but the uniformity of the civilization ended. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 20 Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization 1, Harappa Harappa is situated in Montogomery district of Punjab (Pakistan). Excavations at the site have led to the following specific findings :— # ‘Two rows of six granaries with brick platforms; 12 granaries together had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjo-Daro. # Working floors, consisting of rows of circular brick platforms lay to the south of granaries and were meant for threshing grain. Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture, @ ‘The dead were buried in the southern portion of the fortified area, called cemetery R-37. Single room barracks just below the walls of the citadels for the laborers and factory workers. @ Evidence of direct trade and interaction with Mesopotamia. # Discovery of a red sandstone male torso and stone symbols of female genitals. @ Almost 36% of the total seals excavated in the Indus Civilization are excavated from Harappa alone. Other discoveries include Bronze image of an ‘ekka’ (vehicle) and a seal with the representation of the sign of ‘swastika’ onit. aor Sites and intracion Nabworke indus Tradon, itogaton Era 'arappan Phase (200-1000 8.C.) 2, Mohenjo-daro Also known as the ‘Mound of the dead’, it lies in Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan) Some of the specific findings during the excavations of Mohen-jodaro include :— Great Bath # The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is called as earliest public water tank of the ancient world # It was a huge bath made of burnt/baked bricks # It was probably used for public ceremonies and was situated in a public place % There were rooms around the bath for changing clothes and wells to pour water Bronze statue of a Dancing girl # This shows that use of Bronze (an alloy) was known to the people thus this age is also known as Bronze Age The Great Granary # Was used to store excess grains # This also proves the existence of a civic administration which collected surplus grains and distributed it later There was possibly a taxation system ‘There are evidences of use of cotton Superficial evidence of a horse or an ass. A pot-stone fragment of Mesopotamian origin, eooe We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History @ Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia. # Evidence of violent death of some of the inhabitants (discovery of human skeletons put together). Largest number of seals are found here @ Seals were made of aesthetite which is a form of clay # These seals were circular, square and cylindrical in shape Seals were used to depict their script Seals were also used as a mark of authority and a medium of exchange # A seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her womb, and a woman to be sacrificed by a man with a knife in his hand, @ Abearded man # A seal with a picture suggesting Pashupati Mahadev. # This city is also an extreme example of conservatism, as despite having been flooded almost nine times, they never tried to shift to a safer place. Rather, they came back to the original site whenever the water table receded. Nor did they ever try to build strong embankments to protect themselves from floods. 3. Alamgirpur @ The famous Harappan site is considered the eastern boundary of the Indus culture. It developed during the late- Harappan culture, @ The site is remarkable for providing the impression of cloth on a trough. 4, Kalibangan Kalibangan was an important Harappan city. The word Kalibangan means ‘black bangles’. A ploughed field was the most important discovery of the early excavations. Later excavations at Kalibangan made the following specific discoveries :— oe An Institute For Civil Services 21 # It was situated on the banks of river Ghagger # Evidence of ploughing has been found at his site # Evidence of pre-Harappan culture is also found here # = Awooden furrow Seven fire altars in a row on a platform suggesting the practice of the cult of sacrifice. 4 Remains of a massive brick wall around both the citadel and the lower town (the second Harappan site after Lothal to have the lower town also walled. # Bones ofa camel. % The skull of a child found suffering from hydrocephalus. # Evidences of two types of burials :— 4, Burials in a rectangular grave and 2. Burial: 5. Kot-Diji 4 Kot-Diji isa pre-Harappan site. # Houses were made of stone. # The remains of Kot-Diji suggest that the city existed in the first half of the third ina circular grave. millennium B.C. Excavations at the site suggest that the city was destructed by force. 6, Lothal Lothal was an important trade centre of the Harappan culture. The town planning in Lothal was different from that of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The city was divided into six sections. Each section was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks. Each platform was separated by a road with width ranging from 12 feet to 20 feet. Excavations at Lothal led to some specific discoveries which include :— # It was on the banks of river Bhogwa in Gujarat (ancient name of Sabarmati river) We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 2 o Sas Remains of rice husk (the only other Harappan city where the rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad). An artificial dock yard. Evidence of a horse from a doubtful terracotta figurine. Impressions of cloth on some of the seals. Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia Houses with entrances on the main street (the houses of all other Harappan ci had side entries) Aship designed ona seal. A terracotta ship. A painting on a jar resembling the story of the ‘cunning fox’ and the ‘thirsty crow’ narrates Panchatantra. Evidence of double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave) found in three graves whereas in Kalibangan one such grave has been found. Evidence of games similar to modern day chess An instrument for measuring 180, 90, 45 degree angles (the instrument points to modern day compass). Amri It is a pre-Harappan settlement. However it lacks the fortification plan of the pre-Harappan phase. It gives the impression of existence of transitional culture between pre and post Harappan culture. Important findings at Amri include the actual remains of rhinoceros, traces of Jhangar culture in late or declining Harappan phase. Chanhu-daro Excavations at revealed three different cultural layers from lowest to the top being Indus Chanhu-daro have culture, and the pre-Harappan Jhukar culture and the Jhangar culture. It provides evidences about different Harappan factories. These factories produced seals, toys and bone implements. The evidence of bead maker's shops. It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. Some remarkable findings at Chanhu- daro include bronze figures of bullock cart and ekkas, a small pot suggesting an inkwell, footprints of an elephant and a dog chasing a cat. Ropar Ropar is a Harappan site from where remains of pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures have been found. Buildings at Ropar were made mainly of stone and soil. Important findings at the site include pottery, ornaments, copper axes, terracotta blades, one inscribed steatite with typical pictographs, several burials interred in oval pits and a rectangular mud brick chamber. ‘There is also an evidence of burying a dog below the human burial. seal Indus . Banawali Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banawali has provided two phases of culture during its excavations: the pre- Harappan (Phase I) and the Harappan (Phase 11). The roads were not always straight nor did they cutat right angles. It also lacked another important feature of the Harappan civilization - a systematic drainage system. High quality barley has been found. Other important material remains include steatite and a few ceramics, seal We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 23 terracotta sealing with typical Indus script, ear rings shaped like leaves of a peepal tree and terracotta bangles. Surkotda @ Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat and excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1972, Surkotda was an important fortified Harappan settlement. 4 This site is important because it provides the first actual remains of horse bones. @ A cemetery with four pot burials with some human bones has also been found. Table Indus citiesata glance # A grave has been found in association with a big rock (megalithic burial), a rare finding of the Harappan culture. 12. Sutkagendor Sutkagendor situated in Sindh (Pakistan) was an important coastal town of the Indus civilization. % Excavations of —Sutkagendor have revealed a twofold division of the township: the Citadel and the Lower City, it is said that Sutkagendor was originally a port which later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift. City Province RiverBank Year of ‘Archaeologist Discovery Harappa Pakistani Punjab Ravi 1921 Daya Ram Sahni Mohenjodaro Sind Indus 1922 RD Banerjee Sutkagendor Baluchistan Dasht 1931 Aurel Stein Rangpur Gujrat Meedar 1931 MS Vats Chanhudaro Sind Indus 1931 MG Majumdar Ropar Punjab Sutlet 1953 YD Sharma Lothal Gujrat Bhogava 1957 SR Rao Sabarmati Kalibangan Rajasthan Ghaggar 1959 BB Lal Alamgir Uttar Pradesh Hindon 1974 YD Sharma Banawali___Haryana Ghaggar 1974 RS Bisht Choose the correct answer: Previous year question ae Q. Which of the following statements are Peon correct about Harappan Seals? 2. fand ifi 3. iiand i (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 19-11-2013) 4. i,iiand iii i, Most of the seals are square in shape. ii, Most of the seals are made up of steatite. iii, Some seals have only writing, but no motif. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 24 ‘Topies = > Early Vedie or Rigvedic Period > Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase ‘The Vedi V terature Vedic Civilization can be divided into two phases :-— o + Early Vedic Civilization (1500 BC - 1000 BC) Later Vedic Civilization (1000 BC - 600 BC) Aryans Different theories exist regarding the al place of the Aryans. The Central Asian Theory given by Max Muller is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. They entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in the Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 B.C. ‘The whole region in which Aryans were first settled in India is called the Land of the Seven Rivers. According to Rig-Veda Aryans came in several waves. The earliest wave appeared in 1500 BC. They came in conflict. with pre-Aryan indigenous people called Dasas, Dasyus etc. The Aryan after tribal conflicts with pre- Aryans and among themselves too resulted in division of Aryans in fiver tribes called Panchjana. Battle of Ten Kings: Battle of Bharat clan king with ten kings, five of whom were heads of Aryan tribes and the remaining five of non-Aryan tribes. The Battle was fought on river Parushi, identical with River Ravi. The country was eventually named after mentioned in Rig-Veda. The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran. ‘The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the Early Vedic (1500-1000 B.C.) when most of the hymns of the Rig Veda were composed and the Later Vedic (1000-600 B.C.) when the remaining three Vedas and their branches were composed. Bharatvarsha first Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period (1500- 1000 B.C.) The Rigveda is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. Rigveda mentions about 33 gods that time who were divided into three categories viz, heavenly —_ gods, atmospheric god, and earthly gods. Varuna, Surya, Aditi, Savitri were heavenly gods. Indra, Rudra, Maruts etc were atmospheric gods. Agni, Soma, and Prithvi were earthly gods. Four rivers of Afghani: Kubha, Krumu, Gomati (Gomal), Suvastu (swat). an are mentioned: mentioned in RigVeda We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the Iranian language. The two texts use the same names for several Gods and even for social classes. # The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. These include the three Vedas — Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and the Brahamanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the Sutras. # The collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras were known as Samhitas. # For purposes of singing, the prayers of the Rigveda were set to tune and this modified collection was known as the Samveda. @ ‘The Yajurveda contains not only the hymns but also the rituals which have to accompany their recitation, @ = The Atharvaveda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents throws light on life of non- Aryans. All the Vedic literature is together called the Shruti and they include apart from the four Vedas, the Brahamanas, the nd the Upanishads. Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 25 Ancient Name Present Name ¢ The Brahamanas are a series of texts Saraswati Ghagghar that followed the Vedic samhitas. Each Kubha Kabo Veda has several bhramanas attached to Parushni Ravi it. These are ritual texts. Askini Chenab itasta Jhelum Veda Sutudri Sutlej Rigveda _Aitareya, Kaushitaki Vipasha Beas (composed by Hotri priest). @ It consists of ten Mandala or books of Samveda_——_Jamini, Tandyamasha, which Book II to VII is the earliest Panchavis, Chhandogya portion. Book I and X seem to have been (composed by Udgatri priest) the latest additions. Yajurveda —Satpatha Brahmana The Rig Veda has many things in common ea ae priest) Atharvaveda_Gopatha Brahamana + ‘The Brahaman: throw light on the socio-political life of the Aryans and form a sort of explanation of their religion, especially sacrifice. They also contain ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and its priests. ‘The Aranyakas are forest books that are treaties on mysticism and philosophy and are concluding portion of the. Brahamanas. They explain _ the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice They lay emphasis not on sacrifice but on meditation. Their stress is on moral virtues, They form a bridge between the way of the works (karma-marga, advocated by the Brahamanas) and the way of knowledge —_(gyan-marga, advocated by the Upanishads). Some important Aranyakas are Aitreya Aranyaka, Kaushitaki Aryanka and Taittiriya Aranyaka. The Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. They are generally called Vedanta which means the end of the Vedas. These texts were compiled around 600 B. and criticized the rituals and laid We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 26 stress on the values of right belief and knowledge. They emphasized that the knowledge of the self and the atma should be acquired and the relation of atma with Brahma should be properly understood. Upanishads Ishopanishat Kenopanishat Kathopanishat Parshnopanishat Mandukopanishat Koushikopanishat Thaittariyopanishat Chandogyopanishat Brihadaranyaopanishat eeoeeeoooe - The Smriti are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas or their supplements. It refers to that literature that has been passed on from one generation to the other. Manusmriti written by Manu is the oldest of all the Smritis = The Puranas are 18 in number, of which the Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are the most important. Geographical Spread @ The early Aryans settled in eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western U.P. Political Organization @ ‘The political organiz: monarchial form. The tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The Rajan was not an absolute monarch, for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabhas, samitis, gana and vidhata 4% Women attended gana and vidhata only. n was of # Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and the Kulapa was the head of the family. # ‘The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important. Next important functionary was the Senani (leader of the army) even though there was no regular or standing army. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses. # The Rig-Veda does not mentions the Janpada or territory. # The Rig-Veda does not give accounts about any officer for administrating justice, # Vajrapati: The officer having authority over pasture grounds and settled villages. He led the Kulapas, heads of fighting hoards called Gramanis. % There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and booty won in battle. The Dasarajana War This battle was fought on the bank of the Purushni River (Ravi), Sudas, the son of Divodas and Bharat king of Tristu family won over an alliance of ten tribes and killed their leader Purusukta. The battle broke out due to a dispute between Vashishta (priest of Bharatas) and Social Life # The term Varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair and the Dasas dark, 4 Family was the basic unit of society and was patriarchal in nature. 4 Women enjoyed equal power with men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are a few instances We: SP-21,37T AH S SH, eats, MoIyT AIT, TIGL AIG ;- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 27 of polyandry, levirate and widow marriage. # There are no examples of child-marriage, Both dowry and bride price were recognized during the Early Vedic period. % ‘There were slaves but not used for productive purposes as agriculture labors but instead for domestic purposes. 4 The division based on occupation started but not very sharp and not based of birth. # ‘The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected. The term ‘Aryavarta’ first appeared in text Manusmriti. # Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses, 4% Education was imparted orally. @ ‘The Aryans loved music and played the flute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. They enjoyed chariot racing. Both men and women wore ornaments. Economy # Aryans followed a mixed economy - pastoral and agricultural - in which cattle played a predominant part. # Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency and values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at the time. The horse was almost as important as the cow, @ The term for war in Rig-Veda was Gavishti or search for cows # Coins of gold were also used (Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana). @ Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time. # Reference to money lending first occurs in Shatapatha Brahmana, which describes ausurer as Kusidin, Lived in fortified mud settlements. 4 Physicians were then called ‘Bhishakas’. 4 The staple crop was ‘yava’ which meant barley. Religion The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. 4 The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts - Purandar and was also associated with storms and thunder) # The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered an intermediary between gods and men. % Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order (Rta). He was ethically the highest of all Rigvedic gods. # Soma was considered to be the god of plants, Maruts personified the storms. # Some female deities are also mentioned like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn. % Didn't believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas, 4 Aryans didn’t worship animals ~ only gods in man’s form. 4 The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows ¢ From Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we get the first exposition of the doctrine of transmigration of soul. Later Vedic Period/Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000-600 B.C.) Geographical Spread We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 28 o During this phase, the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western U.P. covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In Later Vedic period, many great cities like Videha, Kaushambhi, Kasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, and Indraprashtha etc. had sprung up. Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, combined and formed the Kuru people Intially settled between Sararvati and Drishadvati and later occupied the Delhi and upper portions of Doab called Kurukshetra. Political Organization + + o Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. The earliest legend on the origin of kingship Aitareya Brahmana. They established powerful kingdoms as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Kasi and Anga. Powers of the king who was called the Samrat increased. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies and the term ‘Rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this period. The Sabha and the Samiti were now not powerful enough to check the power of the kings. The office of the monarch had now become more or less hereditary. A regular army was maintained for the protection of the kingdom. Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrihita), Tax collector (Bhagdugha), Chief queen (Mahisi) and the Great companion (Aksavapa) were some coomon assistant to king. The term Ashtra, which means territory appeared for the first time in this time. occurs in the + + 3. Simantonnayan The dimensions of the territory ruled by the king increases, prices controlled the tribes. At lower level the administration was possible carried on by the village assemblies. The king still did not maintain standing army. The tribal units were called during war. ‘The king's influence was strengthened by rituals. Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and vajapeya were 3 major type of rituals kind performed to show their influence and expansion. Social Life The four fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation which later became hereditary; Brahmins (priests), Raanyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, and traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three) 16 types of priests for 16 rituals, 16 Sanskars . Garbhadhana 9. Karnachhedana . Pumsavana — [Link] 11. Upanayana 12. Vedarambha 13, Samavarthana 14. Vivaha [Link] 16. Antyeshti . Jatakarma . Namakaran . Nishkramana . Annapurna . Chudakarma The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors. Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling the main pastime. Woman gradually losing her position of importance in the religious and social sphere. The king and the nobility had now begun to marry more than one wife and the birth of a daughter was now regarded as source of misery. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 29 @ The remarriage of a widow was prevalent and the practices of sati, child- marriage, purdah and child infanticide were not heard of. @ Many new castes were born, leading to described as a seeker of livelihood and acceptor of gifts but removable at will. Agriculture + Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare. the complexities of the caste system. 4 Satapatha Brahmana details _ the @ = The life of an ordinary man was divided ploughing rituals. into four stages popularly known as the % ‘The Vedic people for the first time four Ashramas. cultivated rice (Vrihi) in the Ganga basin, @ According to Attareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince the brahmana is Types of Marriages Marriage Feature Brahma Marriage ofa duly dowered girl to a man of the same class, Daiva Marriage in which the father gave his daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fees. ‘Arsa Marriage in which a token bride price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter's father. Prajapatya Marriage in which the father gave the girl without any dowry and without demanding bride price. Gandharva Marriage often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties, Asura Marriage by purchase Rakshasa Marriage by capture. Paishacha Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc. ‘Anuloma marriage Marriage of higher varna man with a lower varna woman Pratiloma marriage Marriage of a lower varna man with a higher varna woman. Vedic Rituals Ritual Feature Asvamedha Aking performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted, The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse sacrificed was performed. The Asvamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows. Vajapeva A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish the supremacy of the king over his people. Rajasuya A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king. Ratnahavimsi | A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials (ratnins) invoked different gods and goddesses. Upanayana An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year. Pumsayam A ceremony to procure a male child. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 30 Garbhadhana _ | A ceremony to promote conception in wome Culakarma ‘A ceremony, also known tonsure performed for boys in their third year. Semontannaya | A ceremony to ensure the safety of the child in the womb m Jatkarma Abirth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. @ Rituals and formulae became prominent Pottery in the cult of sacrifice. @ The later Vedic people used four types of 4 Sacrificis involved the killing of animals pottery: black and red ware, black- on a large scale and especially the slipped ware, painted grey ware and red destruction of cattle wealth. The guest ware. was known as Goghana or one whowas @ Red ware for commoners was most fed on cattle. The Sacrificer was called popular and has been found almost all Yajmana. over western U.P. However, the most Indra, Varuna, Surya and Agni lost their distinctive pottery of the period is known importance. Prajapati (the creator) as Painted Grey Ware which comprised became supreme. Rudra, the god of bowls and dishes, used either for rituals animals, became important and Vishnu or for eating by upper classes. came to be conceived as the preserver Economy and protector of the people. @ Krishnala berry was unit of weight and @-Pushan responsible for well being of the led to the use of coinage. The Nishka cattle became the God of the Shudras. replaced cow asa unit of value. Rigveda mentions only gold and copper Sas or bronze but Later Vedic texts mention she Wedag Ce # ‘The word ‘veda’ comes from the root In addition to the cultivation of barley, “vid signifying knowledge wheat and rice, many new grains such a Yeas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to sesame (Tila) and beans began to be hear) as. they were passed from cultivated. generation through verbal transmission @ From around 1000 been found in iron axes, weapons buried They are four in all ~ Rigveda, Samaveda, along with dead bodies. Yajurveda and Atharveda. Each veda is @ Towards the end of Vedie period further subdivided into Samhitas. knowledge of iron spread in eastern Uttar pigveda Pradesh. Iron implements from 7" “ Qidest religious text in the world, Must contr y gee ate celled) Syamay and have been composed around 1700 B.C. Rerishma Yas later edlc tert) # Acollection of hymns. Were recited at the ig a pother arcs andy ratte) weaving) iron time of sacrificial rites and other rituals smelting, Pottery making, Jewel makers ar a ae ee Contains 1028 hymns and is divided into Religion 10 mandalas. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 31 Ito VIII are the earliest mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of seers (rishis) - Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaj and Vashistha. VII Mandala is ascribed to the Kanvas and Angiras. IX is the compilation of Soma hymns. I and X are considered the later additions. # The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the four varnas (Brahmans, Ksatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma. # Words in Rig Veda: Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni. @ The third Mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra. Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda and is referred to 8 times while the Sindhu/Indus is referred to 18 times. # Some of the gods of mentioned in Rig- Veda are Indra, Agni, Varuna, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi, Ashwini twins and goddesses are Usha (goddess of dawn), Vak (goddess of speech) and Prithvi (goddess of earth) # The hymns speak about universally recognized higher values of life such as truthfulness, honesty, dedication, sacrifice, politeness and culture. Age of Vedas It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were written. Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While according to Lokmanya Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C. Samveda # Derived from the root ‘Saman’ ie. ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies. # It has 1875 verses but except 75 all the rest have been borrowed from Rig Veda. # Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’ which is the oldest of the ragas. # It consists 16,000 Ragas and Raginis or musical notes. # This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period, Yajurveda Yajur means sacrifice of worship. % Ithas both poetic and prose Two branches: 1. Krishna Yajurveda (Vajasaneyi Samhita) 2. Shukla Yajurveda (Taitriya Samhita). # This text reflects on social and religious condition of India at that time. # Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. Atharvaveda Entirely different from three other Vedas, # Divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 hymns - mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people) % Atharvaveda refers to king as protector of Brahmanas and eater of people. Atarvaveda is also known as Braha Veda. Itcontains for 99 diseases. # The source of this Veda can be traced to two Rishis called Atharva and Angiras, # It represents the religious ideas at an early period of civilization. # It has two branches 1. Paippalada and Saunaka. Difference between Shruti and Smriti Both sruti and smriti represent categories of texts that are used to establish the rule crifices. of law within the Hindu tradition. Sruti is solely of divine origin and contains no We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 32 specific concepts of law. Because of the e origin, it is preserved as a whole instead of verse by verse. With sruti, the desire is more towards recitation and preservation of its divine attributes and not necessarily towards understanding and interpreting the oral tradition like that found in smriti. The Brahamans They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner. @ Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it. @ The most important is ‘Satpatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda which is the most exhaustive and important of all. It recommends ‘One Hundred Sacred Paths’. ‘The Aranyakas # Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. # These are the concluding part of the Brahmanas. # Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasized meditation. @ Form a bridge between ‘Way of Work’ (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the Upanishads and the ‘Way of Knowledge’ (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated. @ These are the later portions of Brahmanas. Deals with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha ic. Munis and the inhabitants living inside the forests. The Upanishads # ‘The word means ‘to sit dowm near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. # Called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly because they reveal the final aim of the Vedas. % ‘They are the main source of Indian Philosophy. @ There are more than 200 known Upanishads, of which, the Muktika, gives alist of 108 Upanishads. They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices, % They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (karma). 4 Mandukyu Upanishad is the source of ‘Satya Mevya Jayate’. 4 The earliest. Upanishads are Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the Shukla Yajurveda and Chandyogya which belongs to Samaveda. Smritis % Explains rules and regulations in the Vedic life. 4 Main Smritis are Naradsmriti, Parasharsmriti. # Dharmasutras contain social laws popularly known as ‘Smriti’. Earliest Dharmasutra is the Manusmriti which is Manusmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and also called Manav Darshan, Vedangas # Six Vedangas are Shiksha which deals with pronunciation, Kalpa which deals with rituals, Vyakarana which deals with grammar, Nirukta which deals with etymology or phonetics, Chanda which deals with metrics and Jyotisha which deals with astronomy. Epics We: SP-21, FT FH S GH, wea, Moy AIG, TAB AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 33 # The period that lies between the Rigvedic period and the rise of Buddhism in India ie., 2000 to 700 B.C. has been designated by some as the Later Vedic Period and by some as Epic Age. # The two epics ~ the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were compiled later but they reflect the state of affairs of the later Vedic Period. @ = The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa is considered older than the Ramayana and describes the period about 1400 B.C; compiled from the tenth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. It is divided into eighteen books with the Harivansa attached to it at the end. @ The Ramayana attributed to Valmiki has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century B.C. and passes through (RAS PRE 2016) Ben Razanama Hamzanama Alamgirnama Badshahnama Q. Which of the following is not a component of Vedangas? (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 19-11-13) 1. Shiksha 2. Vyakarna 3. Chhanda 4. Alankar Q. Match List-I with List-II and choose your answer from the code given below: (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 26-10-13) five stages; the fifth stage ending in the TET Teer a2e century 2D. ‘ARigveda [Link] B,Samaveda ii, Shatpatha Six Schools of Indian Philosophy [Link] iii, Aitariya @ Samkya : Sage Kapila D. Yajurveda iv. Panchvisha @ Yoga :Patanjali 5. Code: # Vaisheshika :Kannada 6A OB D Nyaya : Akshapada (Gautama) 71 iv iii i = Vedanta: Gaudapada and 820 il ili Shankaracharya. 93 ii wi ii @ = Mimamsa : Jaimini 10. 4. i ii iv ili Previous Year Questions Q The Persian translation of Mahabharata, which was done in 16* century is called: We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 34 ‘Topies = > Buddhism > Jainism Causes of Origin @ The Verna system was prevalent which gave upper two Vernas advantage over the lower Vernas. Even the competition superiority, was one of the causes they rejected Brahmans and extended their patronages to new religions. @ After colonization of Gangetic plain and Eastern regions, this began in 600 BC. The agriculture economy based on iron ploughshare required the used of bullocks and animal husbandry to support. To get away from the rituals and sacrifices of cattle and forests, the new economy had to stabilize these killings. # After the emergence of cities eg Kausambi, Kushinagar, _ Banara Vaishali etc, the traders and artisans became important part of the society. In Brahman society they stood and 3"! rank and to improve their position they extended support to new religions. between them for Buddhism % Buddhism is the middle way of wisdom and compassion. It stands for three pillars 1. Buddha - its founder 2. Dhamma - his teachings Sangha - order of Buddhist monks and nuns. Five Great Events of Buddha's Life and their symbols Birth - Lotus and bull Great renunciation - Horse jirvana - Bodhi tree First Sermon - wheel Parinirvana or death - Stupa Dharmachakra or Buddha + Also known as Sakyamuni (the Sage of the Sakyas), Jina (the Victorious) or Tathagata (one who has reached the truth). Born in 563 B.C. Poornima Day at Kapilavastu) in Nepal. His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler. His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth and he was brought up by his stepmother Gautami Buddha was married at 16 to Yashodhara and enjoyed married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahul. After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer. He left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite on the Vaishakha Lumbini (near horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 35 ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or the Great # He attained Nirvana or Enlightenment at renunciation) and wandered for 6 years. 35 at Uruvela, Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) # He first meditated with Alara Kaiama. under the Pipal tree. But he was not convinced that man could # He delivered the first sermon at Sarnath obtain liberation from sorrow by mental at Deer Park where his five disciples had discipline and knowledge. His next settled. His first sermon is called teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then “‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning joined forces with five ascetics - of the Wheel of Law’. Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama # He attained = Mahaparinirvana at and Assagi, who were practicing the most Kushinagar in 483 B.C. at the age of 80 in rigorous self-mortification in the hope of the Malla republic, His death is said to wearing away their karma and obtaining have been caused by a meal of pork final bliss. (sukramad-dava), which he had taken # After six years he felt that his fasts and with his lay disciple Chunda at Pavapuri. penance had been useless so he His body was cremated and his ashes abandoned these things and the five were divided among the representatives ciples also left him. of various tribal societies and King Ajatshatru of Magadha. Philosophy of Buddhism or Arya Satya Four Noble Truths 1. The world is full of sorrow, 2. The cause of sorrow is desire of materialistic things 3. There isa way to get rid of sorrow 4. To follow eight fold path is the solution for getting rid of sorrow which is popularly known as Ashtangika Marg - It is also known as the middle path (avoiding extremes of both materialistic life and austere life) Buddha gave a balance between material life and austere life which was previously very difficult to attain. Ashtangika Marg :— @ Right View @ Right Resolve # Right Speech Right Concentration @ Right livelihood # Right exercise Right recollection or memory @ Right Meditation 5 Symbols of Buddha Belief in Nirvana Birth Lotus and Bull @ When desire ceases, Renunciation [Horse eee an Enlightenment Bodhitree Flier sarnion liparnaichales cycle of birth and death by following the Nirvana (Death) Foot prints. eight-fold path. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 36 # According to Buddha the soul is a myth. The Sangha Belief in Ahimsa # Consists of monks (Bhikshus and One should not cause injury to any living Shramanas) and nuns, being, animal or man. % Bhikshus acted as torch bearer of the Law of Karma Dhamma. 4 Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds. % Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas. Buddhist Councils Council Place Year Chairman Features Council | Rajgriha 483 B.C | Mehakassaapa Divided the teachings of Buddha (King was | into two Pitakas - Vinaya Pitaka Ajatshatru) and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka. Second Council | Vaishali | 383.B.C | Sabakami (King | Followers were divided into was Kalasoka of | Sthavirmadins and Shishunaga Mahasanghikas. Dynasty) Third Council | Pataliputra | 250 B.C. | Mogaliputta Tissa | Tripitaka was coded in the Pal (king was Ashoka) | language Fourth Council | Kashmir | 72A.D. | Vasumitra (king | Divided into Mahayana and (Kundalvan was Kanishka). | Hinayana sects. ) Vice Chairman was Ashwagosha. Council Place Year Chairman Features ifth Council Mandalay, 1871 Theravada monks Burma in the reign of (now King Mindon Myanmar) Sixth Council | Kaba Aye in| 1954 | Sponsored by the | Yangoon Burmese Government. # Apart from these two there is third @ In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It vehicle called Vajrayana, which became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other South East countri @ Hinayana became popular in Magadha and Sri Lanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol worship. appeared in the 8% century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc. the dietary habits and freely consumed them. s a taboo in We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 37 Hinyanists Mahayanists Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains Considered Buddha as | Considered collection of Buddha's sermons. Mahapurush Buddha as God % Abhinandan Pitaka is the explanation of Did not believe in| Believed in the philosophical principles of the Bhakti and idoltry Bhakti and Buddhist religion. idolatry 4 Mahayana and Deepvamsa are other Empasised on | Focused on Buddhist texts. They provide information individualism welfare ofall. about the then Sri Lanka. Have strict rules to|Have liberal 4 Jatakas are the fables about the different follow rules to follow births of Buddha Salvation of individual | Salvation of all % The fundamentals of Buddhist teachings is the goal beings are contained in the “Dhammacakka- Pali Language Prakrit language Pavattana Sutta (Sermon of the Turning Mainly restricted to | Spread in of the Wheel of Law). Buddha first taught India Central Asia this to his first disciples at Banaras. This contains the four noble truths and the Buddhism after Buddha Noble eight-fold path, which are # Hieun Tsang (the Chinese traveler), in accepted as basic categories by all the 7% century A.D. found that the Lesser Buddhist sects. Vehicle or Hinayanism is almost extinct # Among the chief Mahayana texts is the in most of India, and only flourishing in a Lalitvistara, a flowery narrative of the few parts of the west. life of Buddha. This test was utilized by # From Nalanda, the missionary monk Sir Edwin Arnold for The Light of Asia, a Padmasambhava went forth to convert lengthy) poems ouathe life (oljbuddha: Tibet to Buddhism in the 8% century A.D. which enjoyed much popularity at the end of the last century. Causes of Decline of Buddhism # It succumbed to the Brahmannical rituals and ceremonies such as idol worship, etc. # In the 6" century AD, the Huna King Mihirkula destroyed monasteries and 6 | which Buddhism had earlier denounced. A fanatical Shaivite king of Bengal, 4 Revival of reformed Hinduism with the Sashanka, in the course of an attack on preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth Kannauj in the beginning of the 7 century onwards. century A.D,, almost destroyed the Tree of @ Use of Sanskrit, the language of Wisdom at Gaya. intellectuals in place of Pali, the language Buddhist Literature : orthe common People. 1 standard Buddhist literature in Pali language is en ae a Ne ea among the monks living in the Buddhist commonly referred to as Tripitakas i.e. monasteries. ‘Threefold Basket’. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the Vinaya Pitaka is the rules of discipline in sixth century and the Turkish invaders in Buddhist monasteries. the 12" century A.D. which continued till the 13 century A.D. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 38 Jainism @ Founded by Rishabhanath, the first Tirthankara. @ There were 24 Tirthankara (Prophets or Gurus) and all of them were Kshatriyas. Rishabhanath's reference is also there in the Rigveda. But there is no historical st 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two are historical personalities. @ The 23" Tirthankara Parshwanath (symbol: snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Benaras. His main teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non- stealing, Non-possession. @ ‘The 24% and the last Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira (symbol: lion). He added celibacy to his main teachings. basis for the fi Jain Thirthankaras 1. Rishabhdev 13. Vimalnath 2. Ajitnath 14, Anandanath 3. Sambhavnath 15, Dharmanath 4. Abhinandan 16. Shantinath 5. Sumitnath 17. Kunthunath 6. Padmaprabhu 18. Arnath 7. Suparsavanath 19. Mallinath 8. Suridhi 20. Munisuvrata 9. Chandraprabh nath 10. Sheetal Nath 21. Neminath 11. Shreyanshanath 22, Arishtanemi 12. Vasupujya 23. Parshvanath 24, Mahavira Vardhman Mahavira # He was born in Kundagram (district Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 B.C. @ His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan, His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchhavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali. # Mahavira was related to Bimbisara. + He married to Yashoda and had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamal became his first discipline. At 30, after the death of his parents he became an ascetic. In the 13" year of his asceticism, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya). From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira and his followers were named Jains, He also got the title of Arihant ie, worthy. At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna in 527 B.C. After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta, a severe famine led to the great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they _ established important centers of their faith. migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu who led the emigrants insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusion of the famine, Hence arose two sects of the Jains: the Digambaras (sky-clad ic naked) and the Svetanbaras (white- clad). is Contribution of Jainism + + + Numerous Jain monastic establishments called Basadis sprang up in Karnataka. First serious attempt to mitigate the verna order and ritualistic practices. It adopted Prakrit, the common people language. Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit, Suraseni out of which grew the Marathi language. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 39 They composed earliest important works + in Apbhramsa and its first grammar. The Jain literature contains Puranas, epics, novels and dramas. After southern migration of monks, there + was extensive use of Kannada language in their texts and this caused a huge + growth in Kannada literature. Teachings of Mahavira # Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the Jainism does not deny the existence of Gods but refuses to give Gods any important part in the universal scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in the caste system). In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. performance of the sacrifices. Teachings of Jainism @ He believed that every object even the smallest particle pos: endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict non-violence. sses a soul and is # ‘The Jains reject the concept of the Universal soul or a Supreme power as the Firs creator or sustainer of the Universe. the Jain Councils Non-violence Not to steal Always tell the truth Not to accumulate wealth Celibacy st four were given by Parshavanath and fifth was given by Vardhaman Mahavir Council Place ‘Year By Feature tCouncil | Pataliputra [beginning of | Sthul third century BC. jabhadra | Compilation of 12 Angas to replace the former 14 Purvas. The Digambaras rejected this canon and declared that the original one was lost. Thus, there was a great urgency to devise new scriptures. Second | Vallabhi ‘5M century A.D. | Devridhigani | final compilation of 12 Angas Council (Gujarat) and 12 Upangas in Ardhamagadhi language + Philosophy of Jainism # Concept of God - Tirthankaras are superior to God and God is not the creator of Universe + @ Regarding the Universe - Universe has no beginning or end. Phase of rise - Utsarpini; Phase of Decline - Avasarpini Concept of Soul - Universe is full of souls and it exists in living and non - living things. Wherever there is soul, there is suffering Concept of Nirvana - It means free from cycle of birth and death. Santhara has to be performed (fasting till death). Chandragupta Maurya performed Santhara. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 40 Five stages of Knowledge - Mathi, Sruti, Avadhi, Manahpraya, Kevalya Syadvad - 7 possibilities of truth. Also known as Anekantvad Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya's time. In Kalinga it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century A.D. Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs. They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices could not become popular with the common man. @ Lack of patronage from the later kings. Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects. Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada languages. Causes for the Growth of Buddhism and Jainism The Vedic rituals were expensive and the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated and had lost their meaning, The caste system had become rigid. @ Supremacy of the Brahmins created unrest. All the religious texts were in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses. Buddhism and Jainism: Similarities 4 Both do not believe in Vedas. Both taught in common language. Both were against caste system, rituals and polytheism. Both opposed animal sacrifice Both believed in renunciation of world. Both followed non-violence. Both had tritarnas. Both made doctrine of Karma as the central theme of their teachings. Both believed in Humanism. Buddhism and Jainism: Dissimilarities + Jainsm ascribed life to plants, stone and water; Buddhism rejected it. Jainism practiced rigrous ascetism and self- mortification; Buddhism — was opposed to extreme penace and privations and advised a middle path (Majjhima magga) - Eightfold path. Mahivara advised his followers to discard garments; Buddha denounced that practice. Jainism practiced extreme form of Ahimsa/ Non- violence; Buddhism did not observe it in extreme form. Jainism did not believe in Nirvana; Buddhism preached Nirvana, Jainism had little progress beyond India; Buddhism became world religion. Jainism rejects the concept of God & accepts that world is full of sorrow & believes in the theory of karma, This philosophy shows a close affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy; Buddhism neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. It was more concerned about the individual & his actions & also did not believe in the existence of soul Jainism did not entirely reject the caste system; Buddhism rejects caste system completely. Jainism believed that full salvation is not possible to a house holder & a monastic life is essential for it; Buddhism believed We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 41 that it was possible to attain Nirvana | household life also. Some famous Buddhist Scholars Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Buddraghosha, Dinnaga and Dharmashakti were some famous Buddhist monks. Bhodisattvas Vajrapani -Holds thunderbolt Manju shri- Holds books describing 10 paramitas Maitrya - the future Buddha, Avlokitesvara/Padmapani - Lotus flower Kshitigrha - guardian of purgatories Amitabha/Amitayusha - the Buddha of heaven, Previous Year Questions: Q. The Sect which believed in abiding the nature of destiny: (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 30-10-2015) 1. Ajivikas 2. Charvakas 3. Buddhism 4, Jainism Q. Sixteen Janpadas of the age of Mahajanpada have been mentioned in the Buddist Literature. Which of the following Janpadas have been mentioned by Panini in his Ashtashyayi? (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 30-10-15) A. Magadh Ashmak Kamboj Chedi Vasta op mS Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 1. D&E 2 CD&E 3. A,C,DandE 4. AB&C We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 2 > Emergence of Mahajanapadas + Magadha Empire > Haryanka Dynasty > Shishunaga Dynasty + Nanda Dynasty Emergence of Mahajanapadas (6 - 5% century B.C.) This era is known in History as second urbanization. The first period was during the Harappan period. There were 16 Mahajanapadas most of which were in the Gangetic Plain. 16 Mahajanapadas are mentioned in the Buddhist literature ‘Anguttar Nikaya’, @ ‘These are Kamboj, Gandhara, Kuru, Panchal, Chedi, Avanti, Matsya, Sursena, Koshla, Vatsa, Malla, Vaj Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Asmaka # Some of these were ruled by hereditary monarch but others were republican or representatives of the people as a whole or by nobility. Of the non-monare important was the Vajjis confederacy of eight clans, the most powerful of which were the Lichchavis ruling from their capital at Vaishali. There were matrimonial relations between the rulers of Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti, but they did not prevent them from fighting with one another for supremacy. Ultimately the Kingdom of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding in empire. clans, the most oligarchial states, ruled either by. Mahajanapadas Capital Gandhara Taxila Kamboja Rajput ‘Asmaka Potna Vatsa Kaushambi ‘Avanti Ujjain Shurasena Mathura Chedi Shuktimati Malla Kushinara Kurus Hastinapur Matsya Virat nagari Vaijis Vashali ‘Anga Champa We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 43 Kashi Banaras Kosala Sravasti Maadha Girivraja Panchala Ahichhatra (North); Kampilya (South) — MAHAJANPADAS. Haryanka Dynasty Magadha Empire (6-4 B.C.) @ Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad and grew to be the leading state of the time. # Its success was attributed to its geographical position ite, proximity to rich iron deposits which yielded effective weaponry and the benefits of the fertile Ganga soil. # Also elephants were first used in war. # Archaeologically 6 century B.C. marks the beginning of the NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware); a glossy, shining type of pottery. This marked the beginning of the Second Urbanization in India. % This dynasty ruled from 6% century By to 5% century B.C. % Bimbisara and Ajatashatru were famous kings. Ajatashatru was the son of Bimbisara. 4 They were contemporaries of Buddha and Mahavira. Ajatashatru killed Bimbisara and was later killed by his son Udayan. Bimbisara (544 B.C. - 492 B.C.) 4 A contemporary of Buddha, he conquered Anga (east Bihar) to gain control over the trade routes with the southern states. 4 His capital was Rajgir (Girivaraja) and he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali and Modra (3 wives). % The earliest capital of Magadha was at iriraja’ at that Rajgir, which was called ‘ time. His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings of which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable. Ajatshatru (492 B.C. - 460 B.C) # Bimbisara’s son who killed his father and seized the throne. @ = Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenjit at the time. Udayin (460-444 B.C) We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 44 @ He founded the new capital of Kharavela, assigned to the middle of the Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son, Shishunaga Dynasty # Founded by a minister Shishunaga who was succeeded by Kalashoka. The dynasty lasted for two generations only. # Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti and its final incorporation into the Magadhan Empire. # The most famous event was the shifting of the capital to Vaishali Nanda Dynasty Itis considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties. @ It was founded by Mahapadma Nanda who added Kalinga to his empire. # Nandas controlled some parts of Kalinga (Orissa) is borne out by the firstt century B.C. Alexander attacked India during the reign of Dhana Nanda who was called Agrammesor Xandrammems by Greek writers, in 326 B.C. The Nandas were fabulously rich and extremely powerful; maintaining an infantry of 2, 00,000 soldiers, 60,000 cavalry and 6,000 war elephants which supposedly checked Alexander's army from advancing towards Magadha. ‘They had developed an effective taxation system, built canals and carried out irrigation projects and had a strong army. Nandas are described as the first Empire builders in India. The first Nanda king is described in Puranas as the “destroyer of all Kshatriyas and a second Parasurama or Bhargava etc”. ‘The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya Dynasty under which the Magadhan Empire reached the apex of its Hathigumpha Inscription of King glory. Alexander the Great # Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of Macedon, a state in northern ancient Greece. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16 Invaded India during 326 B.C. to 324 B.C. He came through Hindu Kush through Afghanistan and Pakistan He returned back via Sindh The first Indian King who surrendered to Alexander was Ambhi He was known as Sikander in Iran and Alakshendra in India. He did not attack major parts of India due to:- Hot Climate of India Soldiers of Alexander were very tired Fear that they won't be able to defeat Nanda’s huge army. teoeecocooors We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 45 > Material life Arts and crafts > Political administration > Agriculture + Army and Taxation > Social Order Material life # 6 century BC started to see the beginning of Northern Black pottery ware (NBPW), polished glossy ware. This was made up of fine fabric and used as table ware for rich people. # Many towns mentioned in the Pali and Sanskrit texts such as Kuashambi, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Varanasi, Vaisali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champa have been excavated, and signs of habitation belong to the periods of NBPW. @ Trade was facilitated with the use of money termed as Nishka and Satamana. These were punched marked coins first appeared in the age of Gautam Buddha. Metal was punched with marks such as hill, tree, fish, bull, elephant, crescent etc. # Iron provided advance in technology,. The ore was obtained from Singhbum and Mayurbhanj. Arts and crafts Artists and merchants were organized in guilds under their respective headman. 18 guilds of artisans are mentioned in texts such as smiths, carpenters, leather workers, painters etc. ‘These guilds were known as Shrenis with headman Jetthaka. Generally the crafts were hereditary, and the son learned from his family trade from the father. Political admi © The king enjoyed hi and special protection of his person and property, He was primarily a warlord. * The sabha and practice disappeared; instead a small body called Parishad consisting exclusively of the Brahmans emerged. * The king was assisted by officials called Mahamantras and Ayuktas. ‘© In some states republic system was also followed, practiced in the form of tribal oligarchy. In the republic upto 8000 rajas sit together in assembly. They had administrative machinery with posts such as Upraja, Senapati and Bhandargarika (treasurer). * The villages were headed by village headman known by different titles such as Gramabhojaka, Gramini or Gramika. * The influential Brahmans and Setthis were paid in the form of village revenue grant, But the administration isn’t transferred to the beneficiary. * The Pali texts speak of 3 types of villages: samiti We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 46 1. Typical village inhibited by various casts and communities. Its number seems to have been the largest. It was headed by village headman called Bhijaka. 2. The suburban villages which were in nature of craft villages. These villages as markets for the other villages and linked the towns with countryside. Border villages on the countryside which merged into forests. People living there were generally hunters and fowlers, and lived a backward life. served Agriculture © Agriculture made great advancement due to the use of iron plough and immense fertility of alluvium soil in the area between Allahabad and Rajmahal. * Although, paddy was the major crop, they also cultivated barley, pulses, millets, cotton and sugarcane. Army and Taxation © The kings used to maintain huge standing army as they were always on war, the army maintained. This raised pressure on states and huge taxes were imposed. © The Brahmans and Kshatriyas were exempted from paying taxes, and the burden fell on Vaishyas and Grihapatis. © Balisadhaka were the officers which collected compulsory Bali, a volunteer payment. © The peasants had to pay one-sixth of their produce as tax, collected by royal agents, without any intermediate. Rich peasants were called Grihapatis. needed to be I IL Mm, W. © Artisans had to pay tax by working one month a day for king. © Traders had to pay custom duty on the sale of their commodities. The tolls were collected by officers called Sulkadhyaksha. * As the writing evolved managing taxation became easy and the heavy taxes were in favor of that. Social order * The Dharmashastra laid down the duties of each varna ‘* Many disabilities were imposed. in Shudras, like they cannot invest in Upnayana, more severe punishment than other varnas, ad crime against them were punished lightly. Even Jainism and Buddhism did not make any change in the position of Shudras. Previous year questions [Link] ancient India the head of the guild (shreni) was known as: (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 19-11-13) 1. Adhipati 2. Jetthaka 3. Agrapati 4. Vanik Q. In which of the following texts the list of the sixteen great states (Sodasa Mahajanpadas) of ancient India occurs? Code given below: (RAS PRE 2016) Arthashastra Anguttara Nikaya Digha Nikaya Bhagvati Sutra Codes: 4. land Il 2. Mand v 3. LlLandllt 4. IL, Illand IV We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 47 ‘opis :— > Historical Sources Origin of the Mauryas Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara Ashoka Ashokan Edicts Ashoka’s Dhamma Mauryan Administration Art and Architecture Arthashastra The Mauryan Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya who was the king from 321 to 298 B.C The other important rulers of this dynasty were Bindusara and Ashoka. Historical Sources The sources of the history of Mauryas can be drawn from sources as the Buddhist and the Jain traditions; the Kalpasuta of Jains and the Jatakas, Dighanikaya, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa_ of Buddhists literature. The Arthashastra of Kautilya, the Greek accounts, the first decipherable inscription of Ashoka (deciphered by James Princip in 1837) and the archaeological remains, The Puranas and Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadutta though belong to a later date, throw light on the history of the Mauryans alongwith —_Patanjali’s Mahabhashya. Origin of the Mauryas The Puranas describe them as Sudras. But, this may be due to the fact that the Mauryas were mostly patrons of heterodox sects, The European classical writers, such as Justin, describe Chandragupta as a man of humble origin, but do not mention his exact acste. The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150AD) has some indirect evidence, which suggests that the Mauryas may have been of Vaishya o1 The Buddhist works link the Mauryan dynasty with the Sakya Kshatriya clan to which Gautama Buddha _ belonged. According to them, the region from which the Maurya came was full of peacocks, and hence they came to be known as the Moriyas. It is obivious from this that the Buddhists were trying to elevate the social position of Ashoka (their patron) and his predecessors. In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas belonged to the Moriya tribe and were certainly of a low caste, though it is not clear as which low caste. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 48. Chandragupta Maurya © Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan dynasty. Also. known as Sandrocottus (kind towards friends) by Greek scholars, @ According to Mudrarakshasa, the name Maurya was derived from Mura; a Shudra woman in the court of Nandas, and Chandragupta was son or grandson of the woman. @ = Vishnu Purana also mentions him of low origin ie. a Shudra. But the Buddhist and Jain sources ascribed him a Kshatriya status. According to Justin, a Greek writer, he overthrew Nandas between 325-322 B.C According to Plutarch, he met Alexander in Punjab and implicitly invited him to attack Nandas but offended him by his boldness of speech. # Chandragupta occupied Magadhan throne in 321 B.C. with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya). @ He defeated Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's governor in 305 B. ceded to Chandragupta the three rich provinces of Kabul, Kandahar and Heart in return for 500 elephants. # Seleucus probably gave one of his daughters to Chandragupta and sent his ambassador, Megasthenes to the Mauryan Court, who wrote an account (Indica) not only of the administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the entire Mauryan Empire. @ The Greek writer Justin calls Chandragupta’s army as a “Dacoits gang”. # According to the Jain work Parishista- parvan, Chandragupta converted to then who Jainism in the end years of his life and went to south near Sravanbelgola with his Guru Bhadrabahu. It is said that he starved himself to death here. Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) and Debi Chandraguptam in 6% century A.D. Bindusara Bindusara was the son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghata (slayer of foes) and succeeded Chandragupta in 297 BC. He continued friendly links with Syrian king An requested him for a present of figs and wine together with a sophist to which Antiochus sent figs and wine but replied that Greek philosophers were not for export. He also received a Greek ambassador Daimachos from Antiochus |. Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt also sent an envoy Dionysius to Bindusara’s court. There was a council of ministers of 500 members in the court of Bindusara, which was headed by Khallatak. Bindusara did not make any territorial conquest and towards the time of his death he joined the Ajivika sect. Ashoka Ashoka (273-232 B.C) had served as governor of Taxila and Ujjain, Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya and Ashok’ in Maski_— edict and “Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also known as ‘Devampriya’ i.e. beloved of the Gods and ‘Piyadassi’ i.e. of pleasing appearance. chus I and is stated to have We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 49 # His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal and extended over to Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south comprising of Kerela. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included and was the first empire to do so. Assam was not included in his dominion. @ The Kalinga War fought in 261 B.C. and XIII Rock Edict changed his attitude towards life and he became a Buddhist. @ He inaugurated his Dharmayatras from the 11% year of his reign by visiting Bodhgaya. In the 14" year of his reign he started the institution of Dhamma Mahamatras (the officers of righteousness) to spread the message of Dhamma # During his reign the policy of Bherighosha (physical conquest) was replaced by that of Dhammaghosha (cultural conquest). In course of his second tour in the 21st year of his reign he vis i, the birth place of Buddha and exempted the village from Bali (tribute) and the Bhaga (the royal share of the produce) which were reduced to one eighth. @ He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine of Buddhism both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra and daughter Sangamitra to Ceylon) and other South-east Asian regions notably Thailand, # Ashoka's Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia and mentione red Lum Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in his thirteenth Rock Edict. Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions, which seem to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India. ‘They are mostly engraved on rocks and found not only in Indian subcontinent but also in Afghanistan. These inscriptions communicate royal orders, These inscriptions were composed in Prakri and were written in Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire. But in the north-western part they appear in Aramaic and Kharoshthi script. In his inscriptions following languages have been used: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, Greek, ete. ‘The Ashokan inscriptions were mostly placed on ancient highways and threw light on the career of Ashok’s policies and the extent of his empire. Tarai pillars show Ashoka’s respect for Buddhism. Ashoka in his fifth rock edict mentions that he had several brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyavadana as Susima and Vuigatasoka, whom the Sinhalese chronicles, name as Sumana and Tishya. The former was step- brother of Ashoka. Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi, Ashoka does not call himself by his personal name Ashoka in any of his inscriptions except two: these are Maski and Gujarra inscriptions. Ashoka died in 232 B.C. and with him departed the glory of Mauryan Empire. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 50 Ashokan Edicts Major Rock Edicts ‘It Rock Edict It puts prohibition on animal sacrifices in festive gatherings. Interestingly, only three animals (2 peacocks and 1 deer) could be used for the royal kitchen as well instead of hundreds of them used earlier. 24 Rock Edict 34 Rock Edict 4% Rock Edict It mentions about the medical missions sent everywhere for both men and animals by Ashoka. It mentions Chola, Chera, Pandaya andSatyaputra and has also a list of herbs and trees to be plante: different areas. In the 12th year of Ashoka’s inauguration the edict enjoins a quenquennial humiliation. In the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign compares the past condition of the kingdom with that of the present. 5% Rock Edict It, for the first time, mentions about the appointment of the Dhamma- mahamatras to look after propagation of Dhamma. They were appointed in the 13th year of Ashoka’s consecration. 6% Rock Edict It shows his concern for the people's grievances for round the clock consultations or any type of appeal and that the mahamattas should communicate to him all the matters concerning public business even if he is in his harem, It announces the appointment of pativedakas, custodies morum and criminal magistrates. 7% Rock Edict ‘8t Rock Edict It contains the kings desire to obliterate diversities of religious opinions and tells us that Ashoka, after ten years since his consecration, visited Bodhi tree, ended all pleasure tours and instead, concentrated on the Dhamma tours. Tt contrasts the carnal enjoyments of former rajas with the harmless enjoyments of the kingvisits to holy places, almsgiving, respect to elders, etc. ‘9% Rock Edict It shows the uselessness of all other ceremonies except the Dhamma as it includes ethical concepts within its fold. It basically continues the Dhamma discourse, 10™ Rock Edict In this edict, Ashoka shows the lack of any worldly desire except the desire to propagate Dhamma and to see people following it 11 Rock Edict 12% Rock Edict Tt suggests to people that the gift of Dhamma is the best gift or the chiefest of charitable donations as it brings gain in this world and merit in the next. It is at Dhauli and Girnar. It expresses Ashoka’s concern for the well-being of all other sects. In this he prefers to advance the essence of all the doctrines. He also requests all the officers to internalize this basic philosophy behind propagation of Dhamma. 13" Rock Edict In this edict, Ashoka shows his remorse for the devastation caused by his Kalinga War. The killing of so many families made Ashoka take resort to 21, ore aa S Gu, we fae, orgy aoe, TaGT aI: 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 51 14" Rock Edict cultural conquest (Dhammavijaya) rather than even think in the future about any war and aggrandizement. It is incomplete. It states that this inscription of Dhamma was engraved at the command of the beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi. It exists in abridged, medium length and extended versions for each classes has not been engraved everywhere. It summarises the preceeding and is complete in itself. Separate Edicts First Separate E (Dhauli and Jaugada) Second Separate Edict ‘Addressed to officers of Tosali and Samapa. One royal officer will tour every five years to see that men are never imprisoned or tortured without good reason. The prince of Ujjain shall send out a similar group of officers, but at intervals not exceeding three years, similarly at Taxila. Addressed to the prince at Tosali and the officials at Samapa, it states that the officers shall at all times attend to the conciliation of the people of the frontiers and to promoting Dhamma among them. Minor Inscriptions Queen’s Edict On the Allahabad pillar, the gift of the second queen, the mother of Tivara, Karuvaki for dispensing charity or any other donation. Barabar Cave Inscription (In 12th year the Banyan cave given to Ajivikas. (ii) In 12th year cave in Khalitika mountain given to Ajivikas. (iii) The king Piyadassi, consecrated since nineteen years. Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription Greek version king refrains from eating meat and his hunters and fishermen have stopped hunting, Aramic version - very few animals were killed by Ashoka. Fishing prohibited. Bhabru Inscription The king of Magadha, Piyadassi shows deep respect for the faith in Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. This edict confirms Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism. Rummindei Pillar In 20th year Piyadassi visited Lumbini and here exempted people from land Inscription tribute (udbalike) and fixed contribution at 1/8 (atthabhagiya).. Nigalisagar Pillar | On 14th year the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni was enlarged to double in Inscription size. ‘Schism Edict ‘At Kaushambi (Allahabad pillar), Sanchi and Sarnath. All dissenting monks and nuns to be expelled and made to wear robes and the laymen and officials are to enforce this order on confession (upostha) days addressed to officials of Kausambi and Pataliputra Pillar Edicts 18 On 27th regional year. His principle is to protect thorough Dhamma to administer according to Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma to guard the empire with Dhamma. 2nd Dhamma is good and what is Dhamma? Its having few faults and many good deed: mercy, charity, truthfulness and purity. 3rd One only notices one’s good deeds, does not notice one’s wicked deeds, one should We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 52 notice this and think. Cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and many are indeed productive of sin. 4m In the 26th year, appointment of Rajukas over hundreds and thousands, with independent authority over judgement, there should be uniformity in judicial procedure and punishment. Men who are imprisoned or sentenced to death are to be given three days respite. 5m : In the 26th year, prohibition of killing specific animals and burning forest; cattle and horses are not to be branded. Twenty @ ve releases of prisoners have been made. om Mention of major rock edicts, which have been issued in 12th year, to honour all sects. 7 Only in the Delhi-Topara pillar, Rajuka, Ajivikas and Nirgrantha (Jainas) were mentioned in this edict. Dhamma is better advanced by persuasion than by legislation. king Dharmapravartaka or promulgator Ashoka's Dhamma of social orey © Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as 4 The highest functionaries at the centre sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to called) Tireieas|and were) paldyabulously. preserve the social order, It ordained that iiiey were Mant! Ruroblte, setabau and people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy slave and servants. © He held that if people behaved well they Kautilya mentions 27 superintendents would attain Swarga (heaven). He never (adhyakshas) mostly to regulate said that they would attain nivana, which etl was goal of Buddhist teachimg Yuvaraja. Besides the two chief officers at the Centre were Sannidhata (treasurer) and Samaharta (tax collector). ‘The Mauryan Empire after Ashoka The municipal administration Ashoka was successes by Kunal, and Nagarika: the officer in charge of the Brihadratha. He was killed by his city administration. commander in chief Pushyamitra Sunga, 2. Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent — of who ascended the throne in 187 B.C. The crown land. royal dynasty founded by him is known 3. Panyadhyaksha: Super-intendent of as Sunga Dynasty. Commerce. 4, Pautavadhyaksha: Super-intendent of weight and measures. Superintendent of Mauryan Administr: # A vast and highly centralized bureaucratic rule with the king as fountain head of all powers. The king claimed no divine rule, rather it was paternal despotism. Kautilya called the n 6. Samsthadhyaksha: Super-intendent of market. Akaradhyaksha: Super-intendent of We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Harem PRASASTA: Minister in charge of Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 53 mines. Encampment 8. Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of 9, SAMAHARTA: Chief Revenue collector ships. 10, SANNIDHATA: Controller of Stores Lohadhyaksha: Supeintendent of Iron. 11, NAYAKA: Commandant 12, PRADESTA: Magistrate @ Rajukas: They were the later day 13, KARMANTIKA: Chief Architect Patwaris. They were responsible for 14, DANDA PALA: Chief Army officer surveying and assessing the land. In rural 15. DURGA PALA: Officer-in-charge of areas they were the judicial officers, Fort @ Yuktas: A subordinate revenue officer of 16. ANTAPALA: — Officer-in-charge of the district level. He was responsible for Frontier post the secretarial work of accounting. 17. ATAVIKA: Chief of the Forest tribe Except the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was divided into four provinces % The administration of capital Pataliputra controlled by a viceroy either a prince or has been described by six boards a member of the royal family. Provinces consisting of five members each being were sub-divided into districts and had entrusted with matters relating to three main officers. industrial arts, care of foreigners, @ Pradesika responsible for the overall registration of births and deaths, administration of the district. regulation of weights and measures, Sub-district consisted of a group of public sale of manufactured goods and villages numbering 5 to 10 and was the last with collecting toll on the administered by ‘Gopa’ (accountant) and articles sold, this being one tenth of the ‘Sthanika’ (tax collector). The villages purchase price. were administered by the village head Mauryans had a big army and there is no man who was responsible to the Gopas evidence of its reduction even by peace and Sthanikas, loving Ashoka. # According to Pliny, Chandragupta The Arthashastra mentions maintained 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 important — fun s known cavalry and 900 elephants. Mahamatra or Tirthas. These are :— # According to Megasthenese, the army 1. YUVARAJA: Crown prince was administered by six committees 2. SENAPATI: Commander-in-Chief consisting of five members each taken 3. MANTRIPARISHAD ADHYAKSHA: from a board of 30 membet e six of the council of Ministers committees or the wings of army were: MANTRIN: Minister the army, the cavalry, the elephants, PUROHITA: Chaplain the chariots, the navy and the DAUVARIKA: Palace usher transport. ANTARVAMSIKA: Officer of the Royal # Spies operated in the guise of sanyasis, wanderers, beggars, etc. and were of two types ‘Sanstha’ and ‘Sanchari’. The former worked by remaining stationed at We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 54 a public place and later by moving from place to place. They collected intelligence about foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous officers. The ‘prativedikas’ were the special reporters of the king. # Land revenue was the main source of income of the state. Peasants paid % of the produce as Bhaga and extra tax Bali tribute, @ Pindakara (assessed on group of villages), ‘Kara’ (levied on fruits and flower gardens), and Hiranya (paid only in cash) were also collected. @ The state also provided irri facilities and charged water tax. Industrial arts and crafts proliferated asa result of swift communication through a network of good and long roads and incentives given by the government. ¢ The punch-marked silver coins, which carry the symbols of peacock and hill and regent, formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas. # Megasthenes noticed the absence of slavery. But it is contradicted by Indian sources, Kautilya recommends the recruitment of Vaishyas and Shudras in the army, but their actual enrolment is extremely doubtfull @ In the Mauryan period, stone culture emerged as the principal medium of Indian arts. @ The animals, which are carved on the Mauryan pillars, are: Bull, Lion, Elephant. @ According to Arthashastra, a man could be slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling oneself, by being captured in war or as a result of judicial punishment. Megasthenese did not find slaves in India. @ The trade links between India and Egypt were so developed that Ptolemy had tion ooo established a port named Bernis on the Red sea. India exported turtle skin, pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, cotton and costly wood to Egypt. Art and Architecture The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale. Fragments of stone pillars and stumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillored hall have been discovered at Kumararhar on outskirts of Patna, The pillars represent the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone, only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bull are joined with pillar on the top. Single Lion Capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh. Single bull capitl at Rampurva. Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi. A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.. The Mauryan artisians also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in, The earliest examples are Barabar in Gaya. Stupas were built throughout the Empire to enshrine the relics of Buddha. Of these, the most famous are at sanchi and Barhut. Rock cut caves are also an artistic achievement of Ashoka’s reign. The cave at Barabar hill in the north of Gaya and Nagarhuni hill caves, the Sudama Caves etc. are the several example of cave architecture. ‘The palaces of Mauryan period had gilded pillars with golden vines and silver birds. All the towns were surrounded by the high walls with battlements, water ditches, bearing lotuses and plants, vi We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 55 Arthashastra ‘Arthashastra, written by Chandragupta Maurya’s Prime Minister Chanakya, primarily delves into thye nuances of economy and administration. ‘The treatise lays down various rules that ashould be formulated for a ruling monarch. It laid down strategies for a well-planned state economy. ‘The arthashastra has 15 adhikarnas or books, of which the first five deals with tantra or internal administration of the state, eight deals with avapa or its relations with neighouboring states, and the last two are miscellaneous in character. The work is concerned with all the topics that deal with the internal administration and foreign relation. Decline of Mauryan Empire : The Mauryan Empire lasted a little over a century and broke up fifty years after the death of Ashoka. Slowly, the various princes of the empire began to break away and set up independent kingdoms. In 185 BC, the Mauryan king was overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga, an_—_ ambitious Commander in Chief of armed forces. He started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The Mauryan Empire unshered in a dream that was to survive and echo again and again in centuries to come. Some probable causes of decline of the Mauryan Empire: Brahmanical reaction Financial crisis Oppressive rule in Provinces Neglect of North West frontier Weak successors New knowledge in outlying areas Dissemination of Knowledge of Manufacturing Iron. The religious policy of Ashoka Huge expenditure on army and bureaucracy Significance of Mauryan Age ‘A new era was opened in Indian History after the establishment of Mauryan Empire. It was very first time in history that whole India was politically united. In addition, seoocee oe from this period history writing became clear because of accuracy in chronology and sources. Along with this indigenous and foreign literary sources were available in ample form. This empire left records in a large number to write the history of this period, Also, some important archaeological findings associated with Mauryan Empire were stone sculptures; a tremendous example of typical Mauryan art. Some scholars suggest that message on Ashoka inscription was entirely different from most other rulers which is a symbol of powerful and industrious Ashoka and also he was humble more than other (later) rulers who adopted grand titles. So it's not surprising that leaders of the nation regarded him as an inspiring figure. Previous Year Questions Q. ‘Pankodakasannirodhe’ was the penalty in Mauryan administration. Charged for: (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 30-10-15) 1, Slushing the road 2. Throwing garbage 3. Stanching temples 4. Filthy drinking water Q. The language which has been used in Ashokal inscription, is: (RAS PRE 2013 19-11-13) Prakrit Arabic Greek Roman aeNe Q. Which of the following inscriptions of Ashoka bans animal sacrifice on certain festive gathering, that probably included a ban on animal killing as well? (RAS PRE 2013 exam date 266-10-13) 1. Rock Edict I 2. Pillar Edict V 3. Rock Edict IX 4, Rock Edict XI We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 56 Topics :— > The Sunga Dynasty The Kanva Dynasty The Satvahanas or the Andhras The Indo-Greeks The Sakas or Scythians The Parthians The Kushans Art and Culture VYVVYVY In eastern India, Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryans were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the Sungas, Satvahanas, etc. In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia. ‘The Sunga Dynasty (185 B.C to 73 B.C) + The Sunga dynasty was founded by Puhsyamitra Sunga, a Brahman of the Sunga family. His dominion extended up to Narmada River in the south and included cities of Patliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha. The capital was Patliputra. Divyavadana and Taranatha depict Pushyamitra as a veritable enemy of the Buddhists. Two Ashvamedhas were performed by Pushyamitra. He defeated the Bactrian king Demetrius. The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, whose court was visited by Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador. ‘A Sunga king Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram. also Patanjali’s classic Mahabhasya was written at this time. The last ruler of Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti was killed by his minister Vasudeva in 73 B.C. The Kanva Dynasty + The Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva, a Brahman who killed the last Sunga king Devabhuti in 75 B.C. After a span of 45 years Kanvas were overthrowned by —Andharas_— or Satvahanas of the Deccan, Susaraman was the last ruler. The Satvahanas or the Andhras ivahanas was originally a tribe which later got Brahmanized. Satvahanas was rulers strove for the ideal set by the Dharmashastra. They show traces of matrilineal society. In Deccan and in central India the Mauryans succeeded by the Satvahanas around first century B.C, and ruled for about 300 years with its capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district. Bana describes the Satvahanas as the ‘Lord of the three Trisamudradhipati. Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated Sakas and set up the capital at Paithan, The name of the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 30-104) was Gautami Balasari, It was a matrilineal society. were oceans- We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 57. o They did not issue gold coins; they issued mostly coins of lead. They also used tin, copper and bronze coins The Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans. The called themselves Brahmans and worshipped gods like‘ Krishna, Vasudeva, etc. and performed Vedic rituals. They also promoted Buddhism by making land grants to the monks. ‘The two common constructions were the Buddhist temples that were called ‘Chaitya’ and the monasteries which were called ‘Viharas’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in western Deccan. he official language was Prakrit and the script was Brahmi as in Ashokan times. A Prakrit text Gathasaptasati or Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satvahana king Hala. The Indo-Greeks + With the decline of Mauryan Empire a series of invasions from Central Asia began around 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo Greeks, who ruled — Bactria. Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 BL. The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.), who is said to have pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and reached Pataliputra. His capital was Sakala (Sialkot). Menander, who was also known as Milinda, was converted to Buddhism by famous scholar Nagasena (Nagarjuna). The conversation between the two is recorded in a book —_ named Malindapanho (Questions of Milinda). The Greek introduced features of the Hellenistic _art_in_north-west_part_of India which is also known as Gandhara art. 4 The Greek ambassador —_ called Heliodorous set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh). The Sakas or Scythians (90 B.C.) 4 The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled much larger part of India than the Greek did. @ The King of Ujjain in 58 B.C. is said to have defeated the Saka and styled himself Vikramaditya, An era called the Vikram Samyat is reckoned from the time of his victory over the Sakas. # ‘The most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150 A.D.), who ruled in western India and repairing the Sudarshan Lake in Kathiawar, built during the regin of Chandragupta Maurya. It is recorded in the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit in Junagadh which was issued by Rudradaman and highlighted his achievements. ‘Sudarshana Lake Itwas constructed by Pushyagupta the governer of Saurashtra under Chandragupta Maurya. famous for Tushasp constructed dam on the lake during the reign of Ashoka Maurya. First reconstruction by Governer Survishakh under Saka Satrap Rudradaman and second by The Parthians % The Sakas were followed by Parthians % The Parthians originally lived in Iran and invaded in the beginning of the Christian era, from where they moved to India. In comparison to the Greeks and Sakas they occupied only a small territory in north-west India in the first century We: SP-21, FT FH S SH, eas, MoT AIT, TAB AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Hindus, belongs to these centuries of post-Mauryan phase only. Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 58 # India received a huge amount of gold due The Kushans ] to its Central Asian contacts that actually @ The Parthians were followed by the came from the Altai Mountains. Kushanas who were also called Yuchis or # ‘The control of the silk route by the Tocharians. Kushanas in the first century of the @ Kanishka (78-144 A.D.) extended his Christian era was very significant from empire from Oxus to the eastern borders the point of view of the increasing of U.P (Benaras) and Bokhara in north to prosperity of India in these centuries Ujjain in the south. # The Central Asians introduced better @ He was a great patron of Buddhism and cavalry and better technologies to be the 4" Buddhist council is said to have used by the Indians later. been held under his patronage. # In the period between 2" centuries BC to He patronised Asvaghosa, the writer of 2-4 century A.D, craft working made Buddhacharita, the biography of Buddha great progress, and so did cloth making, and Sutralankar and also patronised silk weaving, making of arms, etc. Charaka, the great authority in Medical Mathura was known for a special type of Science who wrote Sasruta alongwith cloth called sataka. Nagarjuna who wrote Madhyamik # ‘The Kushanas issued largest number of Sutra. copper coins in north and north-west @ Purushpura (Peshawar) was the capital India. of Kushanas. Mathura seemed to be their # They were also the first to issue gold second capital. coins in India that increased in number @ Kanishka controlled the famous ‘silk during the period of the Kushanas. route‘in Central Asia, which started from China and passed through his empire in Artand Culture Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and # The post Mauryan period is an epoch of Western Asia which formed the part of great sculptural achievements that marks Roman empire. the freedom from the overpowering @ = Kanishka started an era known as Saka infiuence of the court in the history of the Era which commenced from 78 A. D. Indian art. The Kushanas were the first ruler in India % The reliefs on the gateways of the Stupa to issue gold coins on a wide scale. at Bharhut were executed during the @ The Gandhra School of art received the reign of the Sungas. Here, the royal patronage of Kushanas. Bodhisattvas were represented in the # The fourth Buddhist Council was held human forms according to the needs of under the patronage of Kanishka at the the stories. But Buddha is represented Kundalavana monastery in Kashmir. only in terms of the symbols viz., Bodhi Trade and Commerce tree, the vajrayana, the footprints, the # Manu’s code Manusmriti, which is the wheel, the parasol, ete most important code of conduct of the # At Sanchi, the human figures become much more graceful and the power of the composition and the narration is more We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 59 advanced than at Bharhut. The Sanchi sculptures include the Jataka stories and many historical themes like Bimbisara leaving Rajagriha to meet Buddha, or Ashoka’s pilgrimage to the Bodhi tree, etc. The Barhut stupa, Amravati stupas were created during this phase. The stupa implied a place where the relic associated with Buddha was kept. The purpose of the Hathi-gumpha inscription was to record the construction of residential chamber for tics on the top of the Udyagiri Both Gandhara schools of art and the Mathura school belong to this phase. The Gandhara art was completely infiuenced by the Greek and Roman styles while the Mathura art form had completely indigenous origins. The great period of the Mathura art also begins with the Christian era, and its most prolific reached its zenith under the Kushanas. It is at Mathura that we for the first time come across making of images of the various Indian divinities. The cult image gets introduced, It is the first art form in India that was quite dominant in its Indian ethos unlike the Gandhara art, which had a lot of influence from the Greeco-Roman features. The Sakas and Kushans introduced turbans, tunics, trousers, heavy long coats, caps, helmets and boots used by warriors Crafts and Trade * Accorfing to Mahavastu 36 different crafts were prevalent. Eight types of crafts were asscociated with Gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron, and precious stones. Also archeological evidences has been found about cloth- making, silk weaving, dyeing, works in metal and ivory. © The inscriptions mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, jewelers, sculptors, fisherman, smiths and perfumers as contractors of caves and donors of pillars, tablets, cisterns ete. * Romans imported spices specially Yavanpriya (Indian pepper), muslin, pearls, jewels and precious metal. Along with this Chinese goods were also sent via India after the control shifted to Kushanas. ‘* India imported wine amphora, pottery and lead to used in coins, * Indian trade was in so much surplus that the roman writer Pleny wrote in his book Natural history “Rome was being drained of gold on account of its trade with India”. Coins Indo-Greek rulers issued gold coins for the first time. % Kushanas issued gold coins at a considerable scale. # The Satvahanas issued large number of lead or potin coins. # Copper and bronze coins were also issued by some indigenous dynasties like Nagas in Central India. Towns @ Prospered in Satvahanas and Kushanas period due to: 1) the thriving trade with Romans 2) the stable regime provided by them. Towns in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh thrived because Kushana centre of power was in North-western region. # Most of the towns on the Uttarapatha route from Mathura to Taxila 21, ore aa S Gu, we fae, orgy aoe, TaGT aI: 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 60. Admi + istration under Satvahanas The Satvahana king was compared in prowess and lusture to these legendry figures and supernatural forces. The district were called Aharas and their official as Amatya and Mahamantras. Senapati was appointed provincial governer. The administration of rural areas was placed in the hands of Gaulmika, head of the military at lower level. They stared granting tax-free villages to Brahmans and Buddhist monks. These villages formed independent villages within the kingdom, # The kings claims to have been Brahmans, they represented the march of triumohant Brahmanism. The kings and queens usually performed scarifices such as Ashvamedha, Vajapeya etc. # The official language of satvahanas was prakrit. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak Topies :-— > Chandragupta 1 Samudragupta Chandragupta IT Kumaragupta I Skandagupta Fall of the Gupta Empire Fahien Trade and Economy Social Organization Religion Science and Technology Literature Art and Architecture VV VV VV VV VYVYY After the breakup of Mauryan Empire, the Satavahana and Kushana emerged as two large Political Powers. The Satavahana acted as a stabilizing factor in the Deccan and south to which they gave political unity and prosperity. The Kushanas performed the same role in the north. Both these empires came to an end in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. Kushana power in North India came to an end in about 230 A.D. and after that, a good An Institute For Civil Services 6 part of central India fell to Murundas who continued to rule till 250 A.D. ‘The Guptas finally overthrew Kushanas in about 275 A.D. The Guptas may have been of vaishya origin. Little is known of the early Guptas; first known ruler was ‘Sri Gupta’ probably ruling over a small portion of north Bengal and South Bihar. He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha. Both adopted the title of Maharaja. The Gupta Dynasty — 320-335 AD 335-375 AD Chandragupta Samudragupta Ramgupta : 375-380 AD Chandragupta Vikramaditya : 380-413 AD Kumargupta Mahendraditya : 415-455 AD Skandagupta : 455-467 AD Later Guptas: Purugupta; Narasimhagupta; baladitya; Kumargupta Il; Buddhagupta ; Bhanugupta; Harshagupta; Damodargupta; Mahasenagupta. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services a Chandragupta I (319-335 A.D.) % Chandragupta was the first Gupta king who minted silver coins after defeating Saka satraps of Ujjain and also in the name of his queen and the Lichchhavi nation @ He started Gupta Era in A.D, 319-20 which marked the date of @ He emphasized his power and prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, Princess of the Lichchhavi nation of Nepal. @ He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.) # Samudragupta (335-380 A.D), called the ‘Napoleon of India’ by Vincent Smith, enlarged the Gupta Kingdom enormously, ¢ The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by Harisena, his court poet enumerates the people and countries that were conquered by Samudragupta, which had been divided into 5 groups. @ 12 Kings were defeated in course of Samudragupts's dakshinapath campaign, who reached as far as Kanchi and Pallava ruler Vishnugupta was compelled to recognise his suzerainty. But he reinstated all the 12 kingdoms as tributary states. # In one of his coins he called himself ‘Lichchhavi duhitra’ (daughter's son of the Lichchhavis). # He performed Asvamedha Yajna to claim imperial title and struck gold coins of yupa type to commemorate the occasion. He maintained the tradition of religious toleration, granted permission to Buddhist king of Cylon, Meghavarman to accession. build a monastry at Bodh Gaya; so, he was called ‘Anukampavav’ He was a great patron of art, adopted the title of ‘Kaviraja’. Poets like Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court; on some gold coins he was shown playing the Veena. He issued coins of different types like archer type, tiger type and battle type. He also patronized the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and studied Buddhism under him, He was tolerant towards other faiths. He received a missionary from the ruler Meghavarman of Sri Lanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he granted Chandragupta II (380-413 A.D.) Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi. Chandragupta II was also a great conqueror like his father and his reign saw the high water mark of the Gupta Empire. Mehrauli Iron __ pillar inscription claims his authority over North- Western India and a good portion of Bengal. Chandragupta II's daughter Prabhavati was married to the Vakataka King, Rudrasena II who died very soon. The sea-borne trade with Europe brought Chandragupta I in close contact with Europe through Egypt. Chandragupta is represented as killing a lion on his coins unlike his father who is shown killing a tiger. Though Fa-hien (the Chinese pilgrim) travelled extensively in Chandragupta’s empire and records the prosperity during this time, it is interesting to note that the Chinese pilgrim never recorded the name We: SP-21, TT FH S SH, wehas, MoIyT AIT, FAG AIG ;- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 63 of the king because he was totally pre- occupied with the study of Buddhism. Chandragupta Il Vikramaditya was the first among the Gupta kings to issue gold coins. Virasena’s Udyagiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world. # He defeated the last of the Saka ruler Rudra Simha Ill and annexed the territories of western Malwa and Gujarat. He was also called ‘Vikramaditya’, He also took the title of Simhavikrama Chandragupta II made Ujjain the second capital of the empire. 4 Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated the confederacy of Vangas and Vahilkas. @ He strengthened the empire by matrimonial alliance, married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka Prince Rudrasena Il, he himself married a Naga princes ‘Kuber Naga’. @ He was also a man of art and culture, his Ujjain was adorned by including Kalidasa, nha, Fa-hien, Acharya Dinganaga, court at ‘Navratna’, Am ete, # Virasena was the Court Poet and Minister of Chandragupta Il Kumaragupta I (413-455 A.D.) # He assumed the title of Mahendraditya. # Founded the Nalanda University. @ He was a worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva). @ Kumargupta I introduced a new type of coins of gold. One of them figures the God Kartikeya ridding on his peacock on the reverse, and the king feeding a peacock on the obverse. Kalidas flourished in the reign of both Kumargupta I and Chandragupta II. + The first Huna attack took place during Kumargupta I. He was very old that time. ‘The aged Kumargupta died when the crown prince was still in the field in A.D. 454 or 455. Kumargupta sacrifices. ‘Towards the close of his reign, the empire was attacked by the Pushyamitra tribe. By 485 A.D. the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a good portion of Central India. performed Asvamedha Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.) + One of the gold coins of the king Skandagupta depicts the king as standing with a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other with a Garuda standard in front of him. To his right is Goddess Laxmi facing the king with a lotus in her hand. He restored the Sudarshana Lake, Skandagupta repulsed the ferocious Hunas twice; this heroic feat entitled him to assume the title of Vikramaditya. Sakandagupta’s successors proved to be weak and could not resist the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly used stirrups made of metal. Fall of the Gupta Empire + The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power and feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, MP, Vallabhi, etc. Mihirkula was the most famous Huna King. Hieun Tsang mentions him as a firece persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman, one of the feudatories of the Guptas in Malwa. Later Guptas of Magadha established their power in Bihar, alongside them the We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 64 Maukharies rose to power in Bihar and UP. with their capital at Kannauj, the Maitrakas of Vallabhi established their authority in Gujarat and Western Malwa. # In North India the Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar established their power in Haryana and they gradually moved to Kannauj. # ‘The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which was bound to reduce their revenues. @ Their income may have further been affected by the decline of foreign trade, # Decline of trade led to decay of towns, the post- Gupta period witnessed the ruin of many old commercial cities. @ ‘The later Guptas, though they ruled in Magadha till about the eight-century, were not genealogically connected to the Imperial Guptas. Fahien # Fahien, a Chinese Buddhist monk visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II and stayed in India for six years. @ His travel account throws considerable light on the socio-religious life in the country during this period. @ = Fahien noted that Buddhism was still popular, though Hinduism was gaining ground under the patronage of the Guptas. He also commented that due to the influence of Buddhism and Jainism many people from higher sections of society had become vegetarians. His writings give important information about early Budhism. + After his return to China he translated into Chinese the many Sanskrit Buddhist texts he had bought back. Trade and Economy Kalidasa gives good description of the market towns, The volume of trade with China greatly increased during Gupta period and the Chinese silk was called ‘Chinansuka’ in India. Indian muslin created a great demand in the city of Rome. At Kaveripattinam, the Yavana section of the city overflowed with prosperity. At. Arikamedu, a sizeable Roman settlement and a Roman factory was discovered (it was known for Muslin). Barygaza or Broach was the largest port on the western coast. Glass production started in the Gupta period. Varahmihira paid tribute to Greek astronomers by saying that they deserve as much respect as our own rishis. Gold coins were called Dinars and silver coins were called Rupyakas. Political Organization + In contrast to the Mauryas, the Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as ‘Parmeshwar’ ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and ‘Param-bhattaraka’ which signify that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire. Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture. Council of ministers existed; evidence of one man holding several posts like Harisena and posts becoming hereditary. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak o + The empire was divided into ‘Bhukti’ placed under the charge of an ‘Uparika’. Bhuktis were divided into districts placed under the charge of ‘Vishayp: The sub-districts were called ‘Peth’ and the villages were under ‘Gramika’ or ‘Mahattar’, The Guptas did not maintain a vast bureaucracy like that of the Mauryas. “Kumaramatyas’ were the most important officers who were appointed by the king in the home provinces, Chariots receded into the background and cavalry came to the forefront. In judicial system, for the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated. In the Gupta period land taxes increased in number, and also those on trade and commerce. A large part of the empire was administered by feudatories, many of whom had been subjected by Samudragupta. Salary was not paid in cash. Religious functionaries were granted land called ‘Agarhara’, free of taxes for ever, and they were authorised to collect from peasants all taxes, which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. Land revenue was about 1/7 of the produce payable either in cash or kind. Maintenance of royal officers was done by the local peasants by providing them with furniture, grain etc, If the royal army passed through the countryside the local people had to feed it. No transaction of property in the village can be done with out the permission of village headman, Official | Field of Work Maha Pratihari Chief_usher_of Royal An Institute For Civil Services 65 Palace. Dandapashika Chief officer of the Police department Mahaprajapati Chief officer of Elephant corps Vinayashitishapak | Chief officer of religious affairs Mahadandanayaka | Minister of justice Mahashvapati Chief of Cavalry Social Organization % Land grants to Brahmanas suggest Brahaman supremacy. Caste proliferated into numerous sub- castes, firstly, as a result of assimilation of a large number of foreigners into Indian society, and secondly due to absorption of many tribal people in Brahmanical society through process of land grants. % ‘Though women were idealized in literature, mother goddesses were worshipped, but in reality they were accorded lower postion viz. pre-puberty marriage, denial of education, treated as an item of property, etc. They were allowed to listen to the Epics and the Puranas, like the Shudras. # The position of the Shudra somewhat improved but number of untouchables and the practice of untouchability increased, # The first example of Sati came from Eran of 510 A.D. Sati system was very rare in the Gupta period, almost the only recorded instance in the age being that of the Goparaja’s wife in A.D. 510 came to light from Eran (M.P.). % Nagarjuna established the Shunyavada philosophy; he infused a new life into Buddhism and helped the eventual development of the Advaita School in the Hindu Vedanta. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Ancient History Samyak An Institute For Civil Services 66 o Indian villages were subjected to forced labour called Vishti. Religion Many legal text books were written during this period such as the Bhagwad Gita, Yajnavalkaya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, etc. Hinduism acquired its present shape, Brahma; Vishnu & Mahesh emerged as the supreme deity. Devotional Hinduism got perfection and Bhagvatism became more _ popular, centred round the worship of Vishnu or Bhagvat. History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu. Theory of Karma and idea of Bhakti and Ahimsa became the foundation of in the temples became a common feature. # Various female deities such as Durga, Amba, Kali, Chandi, etc. came to be regarded as mother goddesses. @ Four ends of life were enumerated- Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, first three collectively called “Triverga’ Six schools of philosophy were perfected. Buddhism no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period. 4 Fa-hien has given the impression that this religion was in flourishing state. Buddhism was not so much of important in Gupta perios as it was in Ashoka’s period. Science and Technology © Gupta period is unparalleled for achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy. + Brahmagupta in 7 century developed rules for-operating with zero and negative quantities, he began to apply algebra to astronomical problems. He wrote Brahmasphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the law of gravitation. Prominent astronomers were Aryabhatta and Varahamihira. Aryabhatta was the first astronomer who wrote Arya-bhattiyam, found the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, calculated the circumference of the earth in Suryasiddhanta. Aryabhatta described the value of first nine numbers and the use of zero in Aryabhattiyam. He also calculatd the value of pie and invented Algebra, He was first to reveal that the Sun is stationary and the earth revolves round it Varahamihira’s well-known work was ‘Brihatsamhita’, it stated that the Moon rotates round the Earth and the Earth rotates round the Sun. He also wrote ‘Panch Siddhantika’ which gives the summary of five astronomical books current in his time, Romaka Siddhanta, a book on astronomy was also compiled. Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the ayurvedic system of medicine. Palakapya wrote Hastyagarved, a treatise on the diseases of elephants, Dhanvantri was famous for Ayurveda knowledge. In the work with iron and bronze, Gupta craftsmen distinguish themselves. Technical skill can be witnessed in Mehrauli; the pillar has not got any rust in 15 centuries. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra and Hitopdesh. Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 67 Literature Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata Sanskrit language and literature made along with various Puranas and Smrities much headway during this period. This were finally compiled. was the language of scholars. 4 Amarsimha wrote ‘Amarkosha’. The greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist # Sanskrit was so famous in this age that it of the Gupta age was Kalidasa, his was the official court language. important works were-Meghdutam, Literature in this period developed Abhijana Shakuntalam, Kumarsambhava, ornate style, different from old simple Raghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Sanskrit. Malvikagnimitra, ete. = 13 Plays were written bu Bhasa in this Vishakhadatta produced the time. The literary work by Kalidasa was ‘Mudrarakshasa’ and the the major attraction of the age. “Devichandraguptam’. # All plays in this period has these main Sudraka authored Mrichchakatikam, features: Bharavi wrote Kiratarjunia, Dandin 1. These are all comedies, no tragedies. authored Kavyadarshana and 2. Characters of higher and lower class Dasakumaracharita. Bhasa wrote do not speak same language Charudatta, Book Author Abhijnanasakuntalam Kalidas Ritusamhara Kalidas Malavikagnimitram Kalidas Kumarasambhava Kalidas Meghaduta Kalidas Raghuvamsa Kalidas Vikram Urvashiyam Kalidas Mudra Rakkshasa Visakhadutta DevichandraGuptam Visakhadutta Svapanavasavdattam Bhasa Charudutta Bhasa Daskumaracharitra Dandin Kavyadarshan Dandin Harshcharitra Banbhatt Kadambari Banbhatt Ratnawali Harsha Priyadarshika Harsha Kiratarjunyam Bharvi Ravan vadh VatsaBhattin ‘Amarkosh Amarsimha Mrichchakatika Shudrak Sankhya Karika Iswara Krishna Kama Sutra Vatsyana SP-21, S71 So H wor, wea, MoTGT ATE, TAGT WIA - 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 68 Panchatantra Vishnu Gupta Hitopdesha Narayan Pandit Aryabhatta Aryabhatiyan Brahma Siddhantika Aryabhatiyan Surya Siddhantika Aryabhatiyan Charak Samhinta Charak Jnanassiddhi Indrabhuti Panchasiddhantika Varahamihara Brihad Samhita Art and Architecture @ The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. Several bronze images of the Buddha were produced. # In the case of iron objects, the best example is the famous Iron pillar found at Mehrauli. It has withstood rain and weather for centuries without rusting. # This period marks the beginning of temple architecture ¢ Dasavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi is the finest square temple with a low and squat shikhara (tower) above. The temple at Bhitargaon near Kanpur is made of brick. Gupta stone sculptural art was related to the Mathura school Painting reached its zenith with regard to aesthetic and technical standard as is furnished by the Ajanta Painting. Their themes were borrowed from Jataka stories ie. previous incarnations of Varahamihara Buddha and from other secular source- ‘dying princes’, “Mother and Child etc. Buddha sitting in Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath and the Buddha images of Bamiyan, Afghanistan belong to the Gupta period. Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods featured for the first time in this period. This time has been transalated as the Golden age for the development of art and culture, mainky due to two reasons: 1. There was stability in the subcontinent as not further invation and enemy rick was involved. 2. People became rich and gave patronage to the artisans and supported the craft. The 2 meter Buddha statue in Sulatanganj. For the first time the images of Brahma, Siva and some other Hindu gods. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 9 Topics :— > The Pushyabhutis Harsha Vardhana Buddhism during Harsha’s reign Political Organization and State Administration Hieun-Tsang The Vakatakas The Shakas of Mahishaka The Rashtrakutas The Gangas The Palas of Bengal The Senas VYVV VV # By the middle of the 6 century a line of Gupta rulers with the same surname, but not connected in the official geneology with the line, ruled in Magadha. Krishna Gupta (480-502 A.D), the founder of the dynasty, and ‘ors, Harsha Gupta and Jivita-Gupta may be regarded as feudatories of the main Guptas. Malwa was the chief centre of Later Guptas until the rise of Harsha. # Mahasena Gupta was the most famous ruler of this dynasty, he defeated the Maukharis. He associated himself with the rising Pushyabhuti dynasty and giving in marriage his sister to Aditya Vardhan, the grand father of Harsha, Thus, Mahasena Gupta, with the help of Pushyabhuti, recovered his kingdom and got victory over Kamarupa (Assam). Mahasena Gupta's two sons were sent to ‘Thaneshwar to be companions of Harsha and the third son remained at Malwa. Harsha’s empire included Magadha which he entrusted to the Madhava Gupta, the first son of Mahasena Gupta. is two succes The Pushyabhutis 4 The first three rulers of this dynasty ie, Nara Vardhan, Rajya Vardhan and Aditya Vardhan are given the simple title of Maharaja. These rulers were initially feudal-lords under Gupta Kingdom and subsequently the Huna kings. # Aditya Vardhan’s son Prabhakara Vardhan (A.D. 583-605) was the first ruler of the dynasty to assume the title Param Bhat-tarak — Maharaja-dhiraja. Prabhakar Vardhan had made a matrimonial alliance with the Maukharis by giving in marriage his daughter Rajyashri to Graha Varman. = Prabhakar Vardhan was succeeded by his elder son Rajya Vardhan, but shortly he was killed in a battle with Shasanka of Gauda (Bengal). He was succeeded by Harsha Vardhan, his younger brother. Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A. % He belonged to the Pushyabhuti family and was the son of Prabhakar vardhan, originally the feudatories of the Guptas. # Harsha succeeded his brother at Thaneswar. He brought most of north We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 70 under his control and assumed the title of ‘Siladitya’. He originally belonged to Thaneswar, but shifted to Kannauj which after his death was won from his successors by the Pratiharas. @ He brought ‘5 Indies’ under his control - Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. @ Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag, Allahabad at the end of every 5 years. He was a great patron of learning and established a large monastery at Nalanda Banabhatta, who adored his court, wrote Harshacharita, Parvatiparinay and Kadambari. @ Harsha himself wrote 3 plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali_ and Nagananda. Buddhism during Harsha’s reign @ The Chinese traveller Hieun-Tsang counted nearly 200,000 Buddhist monks, yet it is clear that Buddhism was clearly on the path of decline against the resurgent Puranic Hinduism. # In Harsha’s time, Jainism was prevalent only in the places like Vaishali and eastern Bengal. # In spite of losses due to accidents and robbery, n-Tsang took with him to China 150 pieces of Buddha's bodily relics; many images of teachers in gold, silver and sandalwood and 657 volumes of manuscripts, carried upon 20 horse @ In this period, Tantricism in both Hinduism and Buddhism came to the forefront. Political Organization and State Administration Samanta system emerged in the post- Gupta period and by the time of Harshvardhan; it was widely prevalent all over North India. Harsha relied more on personal supervision than on an_ organized bureaucracy. There was a council of ministers, which wielded real power on occasions. According to Hieun-Tsang, the officers received their salaries in kind, in grants of land, and were paid according to their work. Treason against the king was punished by lifelong imprisonment. Taxation was light and 1/6 was the royal share of the land revenue from the people. The existence of a department of records and archives shows the enlightened character of_—the administration. Harsha governed empire on the same line as the Guptas did except that his administration had become more feudal and decentralised. Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state, ‘The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang informs us that the revenues of Harsha were divided into four parts. One part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king, a second for scholars, a third for the endowment of officials and public servants and a fourth for religious purpose. He also tells us that ministers and high officers of the state were endowed with land. The feudal practice of rewarding We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services 1 and paying officers with grants of land seems to have begun under Harsha. That is why too many coins were not issued by King Harsha. In the empire of Harsha, law and order was not well-maintained, Robbery was considered to be a second treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated. But under the influence of Buddhism, the severity of punishment was mitigated and crim were imprisoned for life. @ Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country. His authority was limited to North India, except Kashmir-Rajasthan, Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control, but his sphere of influence spread over a much wider area # Harsha was unable to extend his power in eastern and southern India. In eastern India he faced opposition from the Shaivite king Shashanka of Gauda @ Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada River by the Chalukyan king Pulkesin I in 620 A.D, who ruled over a great part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra with his capital at Badami in the modern Bijapur district of Karnataka. @ The kingdom of Harsha Vardhan disintegrated rapidly into small states after his death. The three border states of Assam, Nepal and Kashmir resumed their independence. Northern India was divided among several Rajput States. als Hieun-Tsanj jeun-Tsang (or Yuan Chwang) visited India in the first half of the 7 century AD. and spent about 15 years (630-645) in the country. He travelled all over the country and observed everything very minutely. He retuned to his country with a lot of material concerned with the Buddhist faith (such as Buddhist relics, images of Buddha and about 657 volumes of manuscripts), but above all he carried with him the memories of this land. He translated all his memories in the book-form entitled ‘Si-yu-Ki’ or the Records of the Western world. This book is an invaluable source of information regarding Harsha and the political, social, religious and economic conditions of India during his reign The Vakatakas ‘The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. ‘The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti. The most important king was Pravarasena I who performed 4 Ashvamedha yagnas He was succeeded by Rudrasen I, Prithvisen | and Rudrasen II respectively. Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati to the vakataka king Rudrasen M. Rudrasen Il was succeeded by Divakarasena, Damodarasena or Pravarasena who composed a Prakrit work titled Setubandha in glorification of Rama, though he was a devotee of Shiva, We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860Samyak Ancient History An Institute For Civil Services nR The Shakas of Mahishaka @ It was founded by Mana after the decline The Palas of Bengal of the Satvahanas in the Deccan. In the middle of the 8th century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was The Rashtrakutas Gopala (750 A.D.). Gopala was an ardent @ Its founder was Dantidurga. Buddhist. # Originally he was a district officer under Suleiman, an Arab merchant had termed Chalukyas of Badami the Pala kingdom as Rumi. @ Krishna 1 is remembered for Dharmpala revived Nalanda University. constructing the famous rock-cut He also founded the Vikramshila Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was University. constructed in the Dravidian style. @ = Amoghvarsha was another great ruler The Senas who ruled for 68 years, They ruled Bengal after the Palas. @ Krishna Ill set up a pillar of victory and a Its founder was Samantasena. His temple at Rameshwaram after defeating grandson —_Vijayasena_— (son of the Cholas. Hemantasena) brought the family into @ Rashtrakutas are credited with building limelight. the cave shrine of Elephants. It was dedicated to shiva, whose image as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti) counts among the most magnificent art creations of India, The three faces represent Shiva as Creator, Preserv Destroyer, and only Shiva is represented in 3 faces and not Brahma, Vishnu, etc. and The Gangas Also called Chedagangas of Or Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun temple at Konark. Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. Kesaris, who ruled Orissa before Gangas built the Lingaraja_ temple at Bhubaneshwar. The famous poet Sriharsha composed the Vijataprasasti in memory of Vijayasena. He was succeeded by Ballalasena. He wrote Danasagara and Adbhutsagara. He was succeeded by Lakshmanasena, Jayadeva. The famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and the author of Gita Govinda lived at his court. His reign saw the decline of Sena power. ‘The invasions of Bakhtiyar Khalji gave ita crushing blow. We: SP-21, dT HS SH, wea, MoyT AIT, TAG AIG :- 9875170111, 9414988860