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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES USING NATURAL RUBBER WITH

EPOXY RESIN

Thesis · January 2007

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF COMPOSITES USING NATURAL RUBBER
WITH EPOXY RESIN

A Thesis
Submitted to the College of Engineering
of Al-Nahrain University in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
of Master of Science
in
Mechanical Engineering

by
NABEEL SHALLAL THAMER ALMURAMADY
([Link]., in Mechanical Engineering 1999)

Safar 1428
March 2007
 ‫الخواص الميكانيكية للمواد المركبة‬
‫بأستخدام المطاط الطبيعي مع راتينج األيبوكسي‬

‫رسالة‬
‫مقدمة إلى كلية الهندسة في جامعة النهرين‬
‫وهي جزء من متطلبات نيل درجة ماجستيرعلوم‬
‫في الهندسة الميكانيكية‬

‫من قبل‬
‫نبيل شالل ثامر المرمضي‬
‫(بكالوريوس في الهندسة الميكانيكية ‪)1999‬‬

‫‪1428‬‬ ‫صفر‬
‫‪2007‬‬ ‫آذار‬
 Certification
We certify that this thesis entitled “Mechanical Properties of
Composites Using Natural Rubber With Epoxy Resin ” was prepared by
Nabeel Shallal Thamer Al-Muramdy under our supervision at Nahrain
University / College of Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering.

Signature: Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Muhsin J. Jweeg Name: Dr. Hani A. Ameen
(Supervisor) (Supervisor)
Date: / / 2007 Date: / / 2007

Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Muhsin J. Jweeg
(Head of Department)
Date: / /2007
 Certificate
We certify, as an examining committee, that we have read the thesis
entitled “Mechanical Properties of Composites Using Natural Rubber
With Epoxy Resin”, and examined the student Nabeel Shallal Thamer
Al-Muramdy in its content and found it meets the standard of thesis for the
Degree of Master of science in the Mechanical Engineering.

Signature: Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Muhsin J. Jweeg Name: Dr. Hani A. Ameen
(Supervisor) (Supervisor)
Date: / /2007 Date: / /2007

Signature: Signature:
Name: [Link]. Dr. Samira K. Radhi Name: Dr. Ali H. Mohammad Al Hilli
(Member) (Member)
Date: / /2007 Date: / /2007

Signature:
Name: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adnan N. Jameel
(Chairman)
Date: / /2007
Approval of the College of Engineering

Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Muhsin J. Jweeg
(Acting Dean)
Date: / / 2007
 Abstract

The mechanical properties of three types of natural rubber vulcanized,

unvulcanized and reinforced rubber have been investigated in this research,
every one of these types was in six percentages of epoxy (0%, 20%, 40%,
60%, 80% and 100%) specimen was made in the laboratories and devices of
the public company of tires in Al-Dywania by using one of the tire dough
called “Tread Dough”.

The value of Young’s modulus has maximum decreased in vulcanized

rubber reach to 74.5% and maximum increase in unvulcanized and reinforced
rubber reach to 317.5% and 23.6% respectively, yield stress, tensile strength
and yield strain, also calculated for each case of these types and for all
percentages of epoxy resin.

The values of resilience , work done , toughness and the percentages

of reduction or increment and it was in vulcanized reduction between (6.5%
to 56.7%) , in unvulcanized and reinforced rubber increment was between
(68% to 89.4%) and ( 62.8% to 137.4% ) respectively, these values were
calculated by using Simpson’s rules and MathCAD program.

Hardness, also studied in three types vulcanized, unvulcanized and

reinforced rubber and also in the six percentages of epoxy resin in three types.
It was found that the hardness is increased proportionally with increasing the
percentage of epoxy resin, in vulcanized between (62% to 95%), in
unvulcanized between (25% to 74%), in reinforced between (37% to 82%).

I
 Special compression device was made according to the ASTM
Standards to test the compression samples by using static compression
method.

Compression set of experiments have been conducted to find the

influence of adding the epoxy resin to the natural rubber, also to show the
value of compression and that the compression is increased when increased
the percentages of epoxy resin in the case of vulcanize rubber between (45%
to 180%) , but in the case of unvulcanized rubber the compression is
decreased when the percentage of epoxy resin increased between (200% to
110%).

Keyword: Mechanical Properties, Composites Material, Natural Rubber and

Epoxy Resin

II
 List of Contents
Contents Page

Abstract I
List of Contents III
Notations VI
List of Tables VIII
List of Figures IX

Chapter One : Introduction

1.1 General 1
1.2 Matrix Materials 6
1.2.1 Thermoplastics 7
1.2.2 Thermosetting Resin 8
[Link] Epoxy Resin 8
1.3 Reinforcement Materials 9
1.4 Interface and Bounding in Composite 10
1.5 Classification of Composite Materials 11
1.5.1 Fibrous Composite 12
1.5.2 Composites Strengthened by Dispersion 12

Chapter Two : Literature Survey

2.1 Tensile Test 14
2.2 Rubber Filler Interaction 17
2.3 Rubber Crystallization 18
2.4 Rubber Molecular Orientation 19
2.5 Cord Rubber Composite 20

III
 List of Contents (continued)

Contents Page

2.6 Epoxy Resin 21

2.7 Work Statement 22

Chapter Three : Theoretical Part

3.1 Particle Strengthening 23
3.2 Whisker Composite 25
3.3 Flake Composite 25
3.4 Bounds on the Modulus 26
3.5 Physical Properties 27
3.6 Mechanical Properties 28
3.7 Stress and Strain 28
3.8 Compressive Strength 30

Chapter Four : Experimental Part

4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Manufacturing of Materials 33
4.2.1 Reinforcing Materials 36
4.2.2 Matrix Material 36
4.3 Materials Specimens Preparation 37
4.4 Moulds Preparation 39
4.4.1 Tensile Test Specimens 39
4.4.2 Compression Test Specimens 41
4.4.3 Hardness Test Specimens 42

IV
 List of Contents (continued)

Contents Page

Chapter Five : Results and Discussion

5.1 Introduction 44
5.2 Tensile Test 44
5.2.1 Tensile Test for Standard Vulcanize Specimen 46
5.2.2 Tensile Test for Unvulcanize Specimen 48
5.2.3 Tensile Test for Reinforcement Specimen 50
5.3 Hardness Test 76
5.4 Compression Test 78

Chapter Six : Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Conclusions 80
6.2 Recommendations 81

References 82

V
 Notations

Symbol Definition Unit

A Area m²
Compression set expressed as percentage of
C %
the original deflection
d Diameter m
Ec Modulus of elasticity for composite Pa
Ef Modulus of elasticity for filler Pa
Em Modulus of elasticity for matrix Pa
F Force N
∆G Change in Gibbs Free Energy J
∆H Change in enthalpy J
l Length m
mc Mass of the composite kg
mf Mass of filler kg
mm Mass of matrix kg
NR Natural Rubber -
SBR Standard butyl rubber -
∆S Change in entropy J/k
T Absolute temperature k
to Original thickness of specimen mm
ti Finial thickness of specimen mm
tn thickness of spacer bar used mm
νc Volume fraction of composite -

VI
 Notations (continued)

Symbol Definition Unit

νf Volume fraction of filler -

νm Volume fraction of matrix -
ρc Density of composite kg/m3
ρf Density of filler kg/m3
ρm Density of matrix kg/m3
σ Stress N/mm²
ε Strain -

VII
 List of Tables

Table Title Page

4-1 Contents of Dough 38

5-1 Determination of Tensile Values for Vulcanized Rubber 52
5-2 Determination of Tensile Values for Unvulcanized Rubber 53
5-3 Determination of Tensile Values for Reinforced Rubber 54
5-4 Values of the Hardness Test to the Vulcanized Rubber 76
5-5 Values of the Hardness Test to the Unvulcanized Rubber 77
5-6 Values of the Hardness Test to the Reinforced Rubber 77
5-7 Compression Set of Vulcanized Rubber Specimens 78
5-8 Compression Set of Unvulcanized Rubber Specimens 79

VIII
 List of Figures

Figure Title Page

1-1 Classification Scheme for the Various Composite types 1

1-2 Spherical reinforcing carbon black in the natural rubber 6
1-3 Structure of Verta resin 8
1-4 Curing mechanism of Epoxy resins 9
1-5 Different shapes of reinforcement used in composite 10
materials
1-6 Types of composite materials 11
1-7 Types of fiber reinforcement 12
3-1 Stress-strain curve 29
3-2 Stress-strain curve for different material 30
3-3 Stress- strain relation in compression for ductile and non- 32
ductile materials
4-1 Mixing Device of Natural Rubber 34
4-2 Rollers Machine 34
4-3 Failed samples 35
4-4 Tensile Test Specimens 40
4-5 Contents of Compression Device 41
4-6 Shore Durometer 42
4-7 Heated Presser Machine 43
5-1 Tensile Specimens 44
5-2 Computerized Test Meter 45
5-3 Tested Specimens 45

IX
 List of Figures (continued)

Figure Title Page

5-4 a-Stress–Strain for Standard 0% Epoxy Vulcanize Rubber 55
b-Stress–Strain for Standard Vulcanize Rubber [50, 51]
5-5 Load – Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize Rubber 55
5-6 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 56
Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-7 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 56
Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-8 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 57
Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-9 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 57
Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-10 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 58
Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-11 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 58
Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-12 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 59
Rubber with 80% Epoxy
5-13 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 59
Rubber with 80% Epoxy
5-14 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 60
Rubber with 100% Epoxy
5-15 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 60
Rubber with 100% Epoxy

X
 List of Figures (continued)

Figure Title Page

5-16 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize 61
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy
5-17 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize 61
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy
5-18 Stress-Strain Curve for Unvulcanize Rubber 62
5-19 Load – Extension Curve for Standard Unvulcanized Rubber 62
5-20 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Unvulcanize 63
Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-21 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 63
Unvulcanize Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-22 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Unvulcanize 64
Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-23 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 64
Unvulcanize Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-24 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Unvulcanize 65
Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-25 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 65
Unvulcanize Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-26 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Unvulcanize 66
Rubber with 80% Epoxy
5-27 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 66
Unvulcanize Rubber with 80% Epoxy
5-28 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Unvulcanize 67
Rubber with 100% Epoxy

XI
 List of Figures (continued)

Figure Title Page

5-29 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 67
Unvulcanize Rubber with 100% Epoxy
5-30 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard unvulcanize 68
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy
5-31 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard 68
Unvulcanize Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy
5-32 Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced Rubber 69
5-33 Load – Extension Carve for Standard Reinforced Rubber 69
5-34 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 70
Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-35 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 70
Rubber with 20% Epoxy
5-36 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 71
Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-37 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 71
Rubber with 40% Epoxy
5-38 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 72
Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-39 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 72
Rubber with 60% Epoxy
5-40 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 73
Rubber with 80% Epoxy
5-41 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 73
Rubber with 80% Epoxy

XII
 List of Figures (continued)

Figure Title Page

5-42 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 74
Rubber with 100% Epoxy
5-43 Comparison Load–Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 74
Rubber with 100% Epoxy
5-44 Comparison Stress–Strain Curve for Standard Reinforced 75
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy
5-45 Comparison Load– Extension Curve for Standard Reinforced 75
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

XIII
 Chapter One
Introduction
1-1 General
Many of modern technologies required materials with usual
combinations of properties that can not be met by the conventional metal
alloys, ceramics, and polymeric materials. Material property combinations
and ranges have been, and are yet being, extended by the development of
composite materials [1].
The word composite in the composite material signifies that two or
more materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful
material. There are three commonly accepted types of composite materials as
shown in Fig.1-1
1. Fibrous composites which consist of fibers in a matrix.
2. Laminated composites which consist of layers of various materials.
3. Particulate composites which composed of particles in a matrix.

Composite

Particle- Fiber- Structural

reinforced reinforced

Large- Dispersion Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

Particle Strengthened (Aligned) (Short) Panels

Randomly Aligned
oriented

Figure 1-1 Classification Scheme for the Various Composite Types

1
 Particulate composites consist of particles of one or more materials
suspended in a matrix of another material. The particles can be either metallic
or nonmetallic as can the matrix.

The most common example of a nonmetallic particle system in a

nonmetallic matrix (the most common composite material) is rubber. Rubber
is particles of carbon, sulfur and another material that are bound together by a
mixture of natural rubber that has chemically reacted and hardened. The
strength of the rubber is normally ascribable to the black carbon.

Composite materials are used increasingly in the many military and

civil applications due to their excellent mechanical properties like high
specific strength, specific stiffness, and resistance to corrosion, increased
fatigue life among others. However, one of the main concerns in the use of
advanced composite is their poor translaminar properties, which become
critical under situations like tensile and impact loading [2].

The modern plastics industry began with the utilization of natural

rubber for erasers and in rubberized fabrics a few years before Goodyear's
discovery of vulcanization in 1835. In the next decade the rubber industry a
rose both in England and in the United State. In 1851 hard rubber, or ebonite,
was patented and commercialized.
Rubber like elasticity is in many respects a unique phenomenon,
involving properties markedly different from those of low- molecular- weight
solids, liquids or gases. The properties of typical elastomers are defined by the
following requirements [3]:

2
 a. They must stretch rapidly and considerably under tension, reaching
high elongations (500-1000%) with low damping, little loss of energy
as heat.
b. They must exhibit high tensile strength and high modulus (stiffness)
when fully stretched.
c. They must retract rapidly, exhibiting the phenomenon of snap or
rebound.
d. They must recover their original dimensions fully on the release of
stress, exhibiting the phenomenon of resilience and low permanent set.

Although the thermodynamics associated with rubber elasticity was

developed in the middle of the nineteenth century, the molecular requirements
for the exhibition of rubber behavior were not recognized until 1932. Theories
of the mechanism relating these molecular structure requirements phenomena
of rubber elasticity were developed soon after.
The molecular requirements of elastomers may be summarized as follows [3]:
a. The material must be a high polymer.
b. It must be above its glass transition temperature Tg to obtain high local
segment mobility.
c. It must be amorphous in its stable (unstressed) state for the same
reason.
d. It must contain a network of crosslink's to restrain gross mobility of its
chains.

Epoxy resins are basically thermosetting resins , epoxy resin have

gained wide acceptance in the industrial field in the past 20 years in
adhesives, coatings, potting, building construction, chemical-resistant
equipment, boats, etc. the properties that have made the epoxies popular in so

3
many fields are their versatility, excellent adhesion, low cure shrinkage, good
electrical properties, compatibility with a great number of materials,
resistance to chemical and weathering, dependability, and ability to cure
under adverse conditions[3].
Epoxies can be compounded to produce a wide range of handling,
curing and final part properties by choice of the basic resin (s), curing agent(s)
filler(s), and modifier(s). As the curing agent becomes an integral part of the
cured compound, its choice is a controlling influence on the curing and final
properties of the mixture. Fillers and modifiers are used to tailor the liquid
viscosity and cured properties to the applications.
A variety of polymers can be blended and corrected with epoxy resins
to provide certain desired properties; the most common of these are rubber,
phenolic, nylon, and polysulfide resins.
The epoxy resins are cured by many types of materials, including
polyamines, polyamindes, polysulfides, urea- and phenol- formaledlhyde, and
acids or acid anhydrides, through coupling or condensation reactions.

The epoxy resin can be used in both molding and laminated techniques
to make articles with better mechanical strength, chemical resistance and
electrical insulating properties [3].

Generally, composite material can be defined as a material consisting

of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct phases suitably arranged
or distributed. A composite material usually has characteristics that are not
depicted by any of its components in isolation.

4
 The continuous phase is referred to as the matrix, while the distributed
phase is called the reinforcement. Characteristics of a composite depend on
three things [4].
1- Matrix Material.
2- Reinforcement Material.
3- Interface and Bonding.

In principle, any two materials could be combined to make a composite

and might be mixed in any geometry.
Both elastomers and plastics are frequently reinforced with the various
particulate materials. Many of the modern rubbers would be severely
restricted without reinforcing particulate materials such as carbon black and
epoxy resin. Carbon black consists of very small and essentially spherical
particles of carbon, produced by combustion of natural gas or oil in an
atmosphere that has limited of air supply, when added to vulcanized rubber ,
this extremely inexpensive material enhances tensile strength , toughness ,
tear and abrasion resistance. Automobile tiers contain on the order of 15 to
30 vol% of carbon black. The carbon black a provide significant
reinforcement, the particle size must be extremely small, with the diameters
between 20 to 50 nm; also, the particles must be evenly distributed throughout
the rubber and must form a strong adhesive bond with the rubber matrix
Particle reinforcement using other materials (e.g. silica) is much less effective
because this special interaction between the rubber molecules and particle
surfaces does not exist. Fig. 1-2 is an electron micrograph of a carbon black –
reinforced rubber.

5
 Natural rubber Carbon particle

Figure 1-2 Spherical reinforcing carbon black in the natural rubber [1]

1-2 Matrix material

Matrix materials utilized in most commercial composite can be divided
into four general categories [5, 6].
1- Polymeric, which includes a number of thermosetting and thermoplastic
resins.
2- Metallic, consisting of pure metals and alloys.
3- Ceramic matrix material.
4- Carbon and graphic matrix materials.
The function of the matrix in a composite material is usually multifold.
Matrices are designed to protect the reinforcing phase from structural damage,
corrosive attack and reactions that would degrade the reinforcement
properties. The matrix phase also serves to transmit applied stresses to the
reinforcing constituents.
The matrix may be selected for its physical properties, such as density
thermal and electrical conductivity (or electrical receptivity), thermal
expansively, melting or softening temperature and translucency [6].

6
1-2-1 Thermoplastics
In general, the properties of thermoplastic polymers can be changed
by changing the length of individual chains, changing the form of the
individual chains, e.g. putting branches on the chain of ‘lumpy molecular’,
changing the strength of bonds within chains and changing the strength
between chains.

Crystalline is influenced by the nature of the molecular chains.

Crystalline increases the melt temperature and reducing transparency of the
unfilled plastics where the crystals in the material scattering the light [7].
The use of engineering thermoplastics as matrices originated with a view to
realize low cost manufacturing.
Factors contributed to this objective are [5]: -
1- Long prepreg stability without the need for refrigeration.
2- Fast processing cycle.
3- Ease of quality control.
4- Ability to reprocess the components to remove imperfections.
5- High damage tolerance characteristics.

Thermoplastics are useful as composite matrices are either crystalline

or amorphous. This affects their relative resistance to solvents and chemicals.
Matrix resins of polymer may be classified into the following categories [5].
1- Polyaryl, Ethers.
2- Imides and Amide-imides.
3- Polyarylene sulfides.

7
1-2-2 Thermosetting Resins
Thermosetting polymers are stronger and stiffer than thermoplastics
and generally can be used at higher temperature. As they cannot be shaped
after the initial reaction in which the polymer chains are formed [5].
In general, thermosets have high thermal stability, high dimensional stability,
high stiffness, good resistance to creep, has a low densities, and high
electrical and thermal insulation properties [7]
The most common resins of this type are epoxies, phenolics, polyamides and
cyanate esters [5].

1-2-2-1 Epoxy Resin: General Chemistry and Description

The most common epoxy resins are glycidyl ethers of alcohols or
phenolics. Liquid epoxy resin is the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A
(DGEBA) and represents greater than 75% of the resin used in industrial
applications. Structure of Verta resin shown in Fig. 1–3

Figure 1–3 Structure of Verta resin [8].

This resin has the consistency of honey. The epoxide group on the end
of these molecules serves as the reactive site for crosslinking in these
thermoset polymers. The chemical chosen to react with these epoxides is
referred to as the curing agent, and it typically has active hydrogen attached to
nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Amine curing agents are the most common and
can be primary or secondary, aliphatic or aromatic, or cycloaliphatic. The
amines typically have greater than three reactive sites per molecule that

8
facilitate the formation of a three-dimensional polymer network when mixed
with the epoxy resin Fig. 1-4.

Figure 1-4 Curing mechanism of Epoxy resins

While the reaction of amines and epoxides occur at room temperature

and below, care must be taken in the selection of the curing agent to insure
that a complete reaction takes place. Amines designed for room temperature
applications typically employ plasticizers to insure complete reaction.
Amines designed for heat-cured reactions use little or no plasticizers and
typically give thermoset with higher strength and thermal performance.

1-3 Reinforcement Materials

Reinforcements for composites can be fibers, particles or whiskers.
Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes
either often circular or near circular.
Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape.
Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as
compared to fibers. Figure 1-5. Shows types of reinforcement materials.
Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the
strength that makes the composite what it is. But also serves certain additional
purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide
rigidity [5].

9
 Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as
per the requirement.
Reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and
stiffer than the matrix and capable changing failure mechanism to the
advantage of the composite. This means that the ductile should be minimum
or even nil and the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

Whiskers
Flake

Particle

Fiber

Filler
Lamina

Figure 1-5 The different shapes of reinforcement used in

composite materials. [9]

1-4 Interfaces and Bonding in Composites

The interface region in a particular composite has a great deal in
determining the ultimate properties of the composite, essentially for two
reasons: -

10
 The interface occupies a very large area per unit volume in a
composite, and in general the reinforcement and the matrix form a system that
is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
The interface may be defined as a boundary surface between two phases in
which a discontinuity in one or more material parameters occurs.
An important parameter in regard to the interface is the wettability of
reinforcement by the matrix. Wettability refers to the ability of a liquid to
spread on a solid substrate. Good wetting is a necessary, but not sufficient
condition for strong bounding, the other important factors such as chemical,
mechanical, thermal and structural factors, affect the nature of the bounding
between reinforcement and matrix materials[4].

1-5 Classification of Composite Materials

Composites can be classified on the basis of the type of reinforcement as
shown in Fig.1– 6 [5]

Fiber – reinforced Particulate composite Laminar composite

composite

Flake composite Filled composite

Figure 1-6. Types of composite materials. [9]

11
1-5-1 Fibrous Composite
The main functions of the fibers in a composite are to carry most of the
load applied to the composite and provide stiffness. For the reason, fiber
materials have high elastic modulus.
The fibers used may be continuous or discontinuous and may be
aligned so that they are all lying in the same direction or randomly oriented as
shown in Fig 1-7. Aligning them all in the same direction gives directionality
to the properties of the composite. [7]

a- Continuous, aligned b- Discontinuous, c- Discontinuous,

d

Figure 1-7 Types of fiber reinforcement [9]

1-5-2 Composites Strengthened by Dispersion

In dispersion strengthened composites, small particles dispersed in a
matrix, therefore; slip and dislocation movement accompanies the
deformation in the matrix, the degree of strengthening achieved is
proportional to the ability of the particles to impede the dislocation
movement. It follows that a finer dispersion of particles results in greater
strengthening. The objective is to have the particles small enough and spaced

12
closely enough so that dislocation movements cannot easily occur between
them [10].
It can be shown that in dispersion strengthening with particle diameter
less than 0.1µm, volume fraction1-15% and matrix means free path (0.01 to
0.03µm), dislocation movement can be effectively impeded [6,10].
The strengthened matrix becomes the main load –bearing constituent
and the mechanical properties of the dispersion-strengthened composite is
isotropic because of dispersion particles in all directions of the matrix
material.

13
 Chapter Two
Literature Survey

2.1 Tensile Test

The first simple analysis process of tensile stresses distribution
along the fibers of a composite material has been accomplished by the
researcher Cox, where as the general analysis, similar to Cox's analysis, was
achieved by the two researchers Hollister and Thomas, in 1966[11].
Garg et al in 1973 [12] studied the longitudinal tensile strength in the
fibrous composite and laminated materials.
[Link] and [Link], in 1977 [13] studied the behavior of
some glass fibers samples, reinforced by epoxy resin with different fibers
directions in impact and tensile tests. Tensile tests yielded the information
necessary for studying stress- strain behavior that is dependent on the angular
direction of fibers, and stiffness of composite.
L.L. Clements and R.L. Moore, in 1978 [14] explained practically the
composite properties of e-glass fiber with various volume fractions.
While the scientist, [Link], in 1981 [15] studied the mechanical behavior of
laminates reinforced with unidirectional fibers being pulled in the fibers
direction until they reach failure.
The researcher H.M. Lahiff, in 1986 [16] investigated the mechanical
properties of the two types of epoxy resins that are DGEBA (MY750 and
GY255 Ciba Geigy) with glass fibers. At various temperature levels, he
studied the effect of temperature degrees on young modulus and tensile
strength.

14
 Guild et al, in 1988 [10] presented a predictive model of mechanical
behavior of continues longitudinal fiber composite. This model used a
combination of the finite element analysis and spatial statistical technique.
[Link], in 1992 [18] performed many studies and determined the
mechanical properties of different layers as well as the longitudinal tensile
strength of lamina.
Minguet et al, in 1994 [19] made various test methods commonly used
for measuring mechanical behavior of composite, and the evaluated these
methods to determine their suitable for textile composite. Three different
types of textile composites were analyzed experimentally and theoretically.
S. D. Salman, in 2002 [20] studied four groups of composite materials
are experimentally studied. The first consists of unidirectional angle-ply fibers
in an epoxy resin matrix with 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 layers. The second
group is of the mate type with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 layers. Both groups are of
a volume fraction of 35% and a real weight of 300 g/m². The third and fourth
groups are similar to the first and second respectively but with a volume
fraction of 50% and a real weight of 600 g/m². The tensile test show that the
mat type composite material exhibit higher fracture load but at lower stiffness.
Both unidirectional and mat type's tensile properties become close to each
other with increased number of layers. Both types exhibit multi-failure pattern
specially at low number of layer.
Al – Zangna, in 2002[21] studied the effect of adding the Iraqi ceramic
raw materials (Bauxite + Kaolin) on the mechanical properties of polymer
concerning the parameters. The polymer matrix particulate has been prepared
by adding the ceramic powder (Bauxite + Kaolin) to the epoxy of type
(CY223) as an example to the thermosetting polymer. The experimental
results have been obtained and concluded that the best particle size is smaller
than (10µm); the best weight fraction is (35%).

15
 A. Jowdat, in 2005 [22] studied the influence of copper powder as
reinforcement to a thermosetting epoxy resin matrix. The mechanical
properties included the Tensile strength, Compression strength. The
composite material parameters included the weight fraction and particle size
of the reinforcement. The moduli of elasticity and yield strength have shown
an increase in their value with an increase in weight fraction of the particle
Husam A. Kareem, in 2002 [23] studied the influence of nickel
powder as reinforcement to a thermosetting epoxy resin matrix. The
mechanical properties included the Tensile strength, Compression strength
and Hardness. The composite material parameters included the volume
fraction and particle size of the reinforcement. The volume fraction ranged
from zero, epoxy resin on its own up to 15% volume fraction reinforcement
Mawloud. H. Al-Dulaimi, in 2006 [24] studied the influence of
Aluminium powder and Aluminium with Titanium powder as reinforcement
to a thermosetting epoxy resin matrix. The mechanical properties included the
Tensile strength, Compression strength, bending and fatigue stress. The
composite material parameters included the weight fraction and particle size
of the reinforcement. (The particle size for the Aluminium powder is less than
or equals to 29µm (d≤29) and the weight fraction has different values equals
to 10%, 20% and 30%) and Aluminium with Titanium powder (for
Aluminium the particle size is 29µm (d≤29) and the weight fraction has
different values equals to 10%, 20% and 30%) and for Titanium the particle is
24µm (d≤24) and the weight fraction is equal to 1% for each different weight
fractions of Aluminium powder ) to epoxy resin. the experimental results
obtained from experiments have been analyzed in order to achieve the best
result. It is concluded that the Young's modulus and modulus of rigidity
increase when the weight fraction for Aluminium and Aluminium with
Titanium powder increase.

16
2.2 Rubber Filler Interaction
The interaction between the rubber and the filler has been studied to
determine the effects on failure of the compounds [25, 26].
Neogi et al., in 1989 [25] have researched the high temperature
interaction between rubber and filler by using the strain amplification factor.
When carbon black is added as reinforcement, the degrees of freedom of the
rubber chains are decreased due to the interaction and adsorption of no
deformable carbon black onto the rubber. Upon an applied load the rubber
must bear the total strain; however, the local strain within the rubber phase is
greater than the global strain attained by the system. This difference between
the local and the global strains is termed as the strain amplification factor.
Chung et al., in 1991 [27] investigated the effects of carbon black on
the ultimate properties of an elastomers. They examined the critical tearing
energy as well as a critical J-integral. They found that for Natural Rubber
compounds, crystallization could be observed near the crack tip.
Crystallization hindered the crack propagation through the thickness of the
specimen. The level of carbon black loading moderately affected the To of the
NR compounds, with the value ranging from 4.1 kN /m to 6.9 kN /m. The true
modulus of the compound was found to increase with increasing levels of
carbon black.

Wang, in 1998 [28] found that the modulus of the compound increased
with the increasing level of carbon black. The increase was consistent for both
the loss modulus as well as the storage modulus. Ascribed the stiffening due
to the filler by the adsorption of polymer molecular chains on the filler
surface. This adsorption reduces the mobility of the polymer segments and
results in a rubber shell on the filler surface. The reduced mobility and the
rubber shell increase the polymer viscosity. This increase in viscosity created

17
a broadening of the spectrum of relaxation times, τi, and the modulus
accordingly increases.
Lake and Lindley, in 1964 [26] investigated the effect of carbon
black on the fatigue life of rubbers. They found that the addition of carbon
black serves as a source for hystersis in the compound. This added carbon
black considerably reduced the temperature dependence of fatigue life of SBR
but did not influence the fatigue life of natural rubber.

2.3 Rubber Crystallization

Rubber crystallization occurs due to a decrease in the localized entropy
upon an imposed deformation [29, 32]. This phenomenon is explained by the
Gibbs free energy. The thermodynamic formula, the Gibbs free energy, is
shown as follows
∆G = ∆ H − T ∆S ... (2-1)
Where ∆G is the change in the Gibbs free energy, ∆H is the change in
the enthalpy, T is the absolute temperature and ∆S is the change in the
entropy of the system.
Allegra, in 1985 and 1987 [31, 32] has found that the crystallization of
rubber can be modeled as a third order transition. This is different than the
second order theory of Flory, in 1947 [33].
Goritz et al., in 1985 [30] discussed an additional Process of strain-
induced crystallization. If a maximum in the degree of crystallinity in not
reached under the applied load, then the remainders of the crystallizable
chains crystallize on reducing the temperature. He investigated both of the
two strain-induced crystallization phenomena by performing differential
scanning calorimetry scans on deformed specimens. For a cis-1,4
polybutadiene specimen extended to 400 % strain the two crystalline melting

18
regions appeared separately. The full width half maximum, of the temperature
induced crystalline region was 267 k while the full width half maximum of
the strain induced crystalline region was [Link] full width half maximum
of the temperature induced crystallization between strained sample and an
unstrained sample differed by 5 k.
Goritz et al. [30] explained this difference as a stress induced entropic
effect. Crystallization in NR is a stress induced an entropic effect. The
reduction in the entropy can occur in the regions of high stress concentrations
such as the tip of a crack. The interaction between rubber and filler can affect
the mechanical properties of NR, but what effects are there to the compound
as a function of time.

2.4 Rubber Molecular Orientation

Dubault A., in 1985 [35] and Xingfa M, in 1985 [39] studied the
molecular orientation of rubber is typically investigated in terms of an applied
load and the resulting strain induced crystallization.
Mitchell G.R, in 1984 and 1985 [34, 36] and Udagawa Y., in 1985
[37] Techniques such as wide angle x-ray scattering, deuterium magnetic
resonance [35], stationary fluorescence polarization [38] have been applied to
determine the orientation parameters of the network. However, when studying
polymers one must always keep in mind the history of the specimen prior to
testing.
Fleischman T., in 1985 [40] explained the theory of rubber elasticity is
based upon an irregular, three-dimensional network; it does not take into
account any history effects. At room temperature there is no physical aging of
a NR vulcanizate, because Tg ≈ -75ºC, but there is a mechanical history to the
specimen. During vulcanization, a rubber compound changes from a

19
relatively weak viscoelastic liquid to a relatively strong viscoelastic solid. In
order for a sheet of vulcanized rubber to be formed it is typically milled down
to the desired testing thickness. After milling the sheet is place in a hot press
where it is cured at elevated temperature and high pressure. Thus prior to the
final vulcanized shape the sample has obtained a milling history that can
orient the liquid polymer chains in a preferred direction.

2.5 Cord Rubber Composites

The cord-rubber composite is a common laboratory specimen because
it resembles the structural belts of a tire as well as conveyer belts and other
systems [40]. Cord-rubber composites have been investigated in order to
determine their crack initiation and propagation mechanisms [41, 45]. Using a
model cord-rubber composite with exposed cords,
Breidenbach et al., in 1979 [41] examined the mechanics of
propagation of interply cracks. They assumed that the initiation process
during which an interply crack was formed which is relatively short and
excluded the process from their study. In their work they classified the
specimens into three deformation regions: a central region where
deformations are relatively uniform and approximately obey a pantographing
model, and two regions along the free edge where deformations vary in a
complex manner. In the edge regions shear strains up to 1000% can occur
from an overall extension of up to 5%. These high shear strains create stress
concentrations at the edge and lead to the initiation of penny shaped cracks at
the cord ends. These penny shaped cracks coalescence to form a line crack
parallel to the direction of loading which in turn develops into an interply
crack. The interply crack propagates with the crack growth characteristics of

20
the material until delamination is extensive enough to exceed the load bearing
capability of the laminate to the point of failure.
Gent et al. in 1981 [42] assumed that the energy necessary to create a
penny shaped crack needed to be greater than the sum of the energy required
to fracture the cord-rubber interface and any increase in the strain energy of
the rubber itself. Deformation in the cord was assumed to be negligible.
Huang et al., in 1988 [43], Knowing that the two plies in a cord-rubber
composite are rarely identical, demonstrated that cracks typically developed
from the narrower ply. They also showed that the fatigue life of the composite
was a linearly decreasing function with increasing dynamic amplitude; load
and maximum Interlaminar shear strain.
Lee B.L., in 1994 [44] and Martin R.H., in 2000 [45] show that the
additional research into cord-rubber composites has focused on finite element
modeling of the structure to determine areas of high stress concentration and
to model the three-dimensional dynamic response of the composite.

2.6 Epoxy Resin

Reinhart, in 1987 [46] demonstrated that the epoxy resins are usual
extensively in the composite materials for a variety of demanding structural
requirements. All epoxy resins contain the epoxide

Where R represents the point of attachment to the reminder of the resin

molecule. Where the type of epoxy used in Reinhart work is epoxy laida
Several researchers used epoxy resin to consist the composite materials
like Ali H. Hilli [2] used of woven laminate composite material .three types
of fibers were used which were E-Glass , carbon and Kevlar fiber with
different types of weave styles. The matrices used were epoxy resin to form

21
the composite material. In this research the natural rubber with epoxy resin
was used to form the composite material.

2.7 Statement of Work

From the previous discussions, it is clear that there are many literatures
dealing with the composite materials, but limited literatures investigated the
rubber technology, therefore, this research will be concentrated on this
subject, using composite materials of rubber and epoxy resin. Then this
research investigates the effect of adding the epoxy resins upon the
mechanical properties of natural rubber.
The tensile test for three cases (vulcanized, unvulcanized and
reinforced rubber) will be carried out in order to investigate the mechanical
properties of the composite material; also the hardness and compression tests
are investigated.

22
 Chapter Three
Theoretical Part

3-1 Particle Strengthening

The particle strengthening of composite is similar to the dispersion
strengthening but it differs in that particle size is larger and volume fraction is
greater where the particle diameter is larger than 1µm and volume fraction is
greater than 25% and the matrix means free path which is greater than 1µm.
In particle strengthening, the load is shared by both the matrix and the
particles where the particle initially impedes deformation of the matrix.
[6, 21].
Generally, the properties of particle strengthening also depends on the
form, size, direction of particle distribution in the matrix and the bonding
between the particles and the matrix, also the interface in composite has a
great influences to the properties of composite material.
The particle and the matrix of composite material each one is either to be
metals, ceramics and polymers as epoxy and polyester.

Many researchers make studies about this type of reinforcement and

all of them agreed about these methods to calculate the modules of elasticity
and rigidity [23].

1- The particles randomly distributed in the matrix.

2- The particles at the same size.
3- The particles bonded with the matrix strongly.
4- Each of the particles and the matrix isotropic.

23
The law of mixture [7, 21]: -
The mass (m c ) of composite is made up of the masses of the matrix
(m m ) and the filler particle (m f ),

mc = mm + m f ... (3.1)
Since the mass is volume time’s density then equation (3-1) can be written
as below: -
vc ρ c = v m ρ m + v f ρ f ... (3.2)
And so: -
vm vf
ρc = ρm + ρf … (3.3)
vc vc

( v m vc ) is the volume fraction (V m ) that is matrix and ( v f v c ) is the volume

fraction (V f ) that is filler particle.

ρ c = Vm ρ m + V f ρ f … (3.4)

Note that since v m = vc − v f , it must have: -

Vm = 1 − V f … (3.5)
By substituting equation (3-5) in equation (3-4), will get
ρ c = ρ m (1 − V f ) + ρ f V f = ρ m + V f ( ρ f − ρ m ) … (3.6)

Also the mass of the matrix and the mass of reinforcement material can be
calculated as follows: -
v
=
f
Since, V f
vc

mf ρ f
then, Vf = … (3.7)
vc

Then, m f = vcV f ρ f … (3.8)

And, m m = vc ρ m (1 − V f ) … (3.9)

24
3-2 Whiskers Composite
Whiskers are single crystals grown with nearly zero defects, they
are usually discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made
from several materials like graphite, silicon carbide, copper, iron etc.
Typical lengths are 3 to 55nm range. Whiskers differ from particles in that;
whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one.
Early research has shown that whisker strength varies inversely with
effective diameter. When whiskers were embedded in matrices, whiskers of
diameter up to 2 to 10 µm yielded fairly good composites [5]. Herring and
Glat discover whiskers at 1952. Also they discovered in Bell telephone
laboratories that tensile strength of Tin whiskers greater than that of tin plate.
At the same time other studies show that whiskers reinforced composites have
a tensile strength equal to 0.1 of their modulus of elasticity. Finally, whiskers
composite used in a great range of manufacturing like the manufacture of
motorcar body panels [21]

3-3 Flake Composite

Flake is small and very thin plates with two small dimensions have a
3
range of size (0.01-0.1) mm and thickness (0.001-0.005) mm. Manufacturing
of flake probably easy but it’s difficult to get the required size and shape, The
degree of reinforcement directed proportional to the aspect ratio and the
bonding forces between flakes and the matrix therefore the aspect ratio and
bonding forces have a great deal about the spread of stress between material
matrix and flakes also it prevents pull out and depends of flakes [21]
Flakes have various advantages in structural applications. Parallel
flakes filled composites provide uniform mechanical properties in the same
plane as the flakes. Flake composite have a higher theoretical modulus of
elasticity with cheaper production and can be handled in small quantities [5].

25
Finally, flake composite used for manufacturing exhaust nuzzle. [21]

3.4 Bounds on the Modulus

The simplest cases have two bounds for predicting the tensile
modulus. The upper bound is: -
Ec = (1 − V f )Em + V f E f … (3.10)

This assumes equal strains in the two phases under elastic

deformation. This equation contains only the composition variable and is
often called the mixture rule and is known as the series model [1].
If the stresses of the two phases are assumed equal, the lower bound of the
modulus is governed by the parallel mode.
−1
⎛1−V f V f ⎞
Ec = ⎜ + ⎟ … (3.11)
⎜ E E ⎟
⎝ m f ⎠

Equations (3-10) and (3-11) have been applied to various physical properties
e.g. the coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity and shear and
bulk module.

Haplin-Tsai Equation
This is a simple empirical expression reduced from Herman’s
solution containing a geometric fitting parameter A, obtained by fitting with
numerical solutions of formal elasticity theory composite moduli are put in
the form,
Ec 1 + ABV f
= … (3.12)
Em 1 − BV f

Where: -
B = (E f Em − 1) (E f Em + A)

And A = 2 l d for tensile modulus. The ratio l d is the aspect ratio [1].

26
B-Paul Equation
B-Paul equation has developed by assuming a good adhesion
between the particles and matrix with a great influence. The tensile modulus
of elasticity of the composite E c is given by: -

⎡ 1 + (m − 1)V f2 3 ⎤
Ec = ⎢ ⎥
( )
⎣⎢1 + (m − 1) V f − V f ⎥⎦
23 … (3.13)

E
m =
f
Where: -
Em

O. Ishai and L. J. Cohen Equation

Ishai and Cohen equation depends on Paul equation by assuming the
producing strain due to applied stress at composite material be constant so the
composite moduli developed as below: -
⎡ Vf m ⎤
Ec = Em ⎢1 + ⎥ … (3.14)
⎢⎣ (m − 1) − V f ⎥⎦

Generally, the difference in theoretical and practical results belongs

to that filled system depends not only on the material properties of the two
components and the volume fraction but also on the size, shape orientation
and the state of adhesion between the filler and the matrix [1].

3-5 Physical Properties

Physical properties can be considered to include density and melting
point [7]. They have a great influence for the natural properties of polymers as
transparency, strength and elasticity.
Studying of physical properties help to reduce disadvantages of polymers by
chemical and technical processes like increasing thermal resistance and glass
transition temperature [47]. These properties include strength, toughness and
wear resistance.

27
3-6 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties are important considerations in design of a
structure or a machine, which enables the design to serve its function safely
and well.
Mechanical properties are usually expressed in terms of quantities
that are primarily functions of stress or strain, but they are occasionally
expressed in terms of other quantities such as time and temperature [8].
These properties include strength, stiffness, hardness, ductility, and
toughness.

3-7 Stress and Strain

When a material is subjected to external forces that make it extend
or contract, then it is said to be in tension or compression, and in same
situations can be subjected to both tension and compression e.g. a beam that is
being bent.
The stress being defined as [48]: -

Force ( N )
Stress (Pa) = … (3.15)
Area ( m 2 )

When a material is subjected to tensile or compressive forces, it

changes in length. The term strain is being used for the fractional change in
length.
Change in length
Strain= … (3.16)
Original length

Since strain is ratio of two lengths which has no units.

28
 Figure 3-1 shows the stress-strain curve. Initially the graph is
straight line and the material obeys Hooke’s law. The point at which the
straight-line behavior is not followed is called the limit proportionality. With
low stress the material springs back completely to its original shape when the
stresses are removed, the material being said to be elastic. At higher forces
this does not occur and the material is then said to show some plastic
behavior. The term plastic is used for that part of the behavior, which results
in permanent deformation. This point often coincides with the point on a
stress-strain graph at which the graph stops being a straight line, i.e. the limit
of proportionality.

The term tensile strength is used for the maximum value of the
stress that the material can withstand without breaking, the compressive
strength being the maximum compressive stress the material can withstand
without becoming crushing. Fig.3-2 shows the difference in stress-strain curve
for brittle, ductile and electrometric materials.

Limit
proportionality
Stress

Tensile
strength
Yield
point

Strain

Figure 3-1 Stress-strain curve [7]

29
 Stress
Brittle
Ductile

Ductile(Necking)

Elastomeric
(Rubbery)

Strain

Figure 3-2. Stress-strain curve for

different material [21]

3-8 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that a
material is capable of developing with a (brittle) material that fails in
compression by rupturing; the compressive strength has a definite value. In
the case of ductile, malleable, or semi viscous materials (Which do not fail in
compression be a shattering fracture), the value obtained for compression
strength is an arbitrary value dependent on the degree of distortion that is
regarded as effective failure of the material. Fig.3-3. illustrates characteristic
stress-strain diagrams for ductile and non-ductile materials in compression,
the dashed line again showing the true stress- conventional strain relation; in
compression it is lower than the conventional stress- strain diagram owning to
the increase in cross section of the specimen while under compression loading
[47].

30
Can be calculating the compressive strength by using these equations [48]: -

F
σ = … (3.17)
A

And can be calculated the true stress and strain by using the following
equations.

ε = ln (1 + e ) … (3.18)
Ao L o
V = Ao L o = AL → A = … (3.19)
L
∆L L − Lo ⎛ L ⎞
e= = = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ … (3.20)
Lo Lo ⎝ L0 ⎠

σ t = σ (1 + e ) … (3.21)

In the case of the elastomers the compressive strength can be calculated

by using the equation (3.22). [49]:

C = [(t o − t i ) (t o − t n )]× 100 … (3.22)

Where:
C = compression set expressed as percentage of the original deflection.
to = original thickness of specimen.
ti = final thickness of specimen.
tn = thickness of spacer bar used.

31
 Non ductile

Stress
Ductile

Strain

Figure 3-3 Stress- strain relation in compression for ductile and non-
ductile materials [47]

32
 Chapter Four
Experimental Part

4.1 Introduction
This chapter includes the experimental part that explains the types of
materials (matrix and reinforcement materials) that are used to make samples
for tests and the standard dimensions of each sample are shown in the
photographs.

4.2 Manufacturing of Materials

In this project Natural Rubber was used as the matrix material and
(epoxy resin) and (carbon black powder) as the reinforcement material, three
ways are used for manufacturing the samples, the first and second ways were
failed and the third one was passed.
The first way was by mix the natural rubber with epoxy resin only
without any adding materials by special mixer shown in Fig.4-1 the result
from this process was inhomogeneous and disintegrated material then the
rubber was completely disintegrated and nothing obtained from this way.
The second way was to treat the natural rubber alone in the mixer and
then pass through rolling process in the special rolling machine shown in the
Fig.4-2 to obtain a layer of natural rubber in thickness about ( 1mm ), then
manufacturing the specimen by layers after coating by epoxy layers, the
sample was formed of three layers of natural rubber and two layers of epoxy
resin, this way also failed because the layers of natural rubber appeared
tearing , inhomogeneous and filled by holes and cavities as shown in Fig.4-3.

33
Figure 4-1 Mixing Device of Natural Rubber

Figure 4-2 Rollers Machine

34
a a- Samples by layers without reinforcement

b- Samples by layers with reinforcement

Figure 4-3 Failed Samples

35
 The third method to produce the specimens will be explained in the
next article.
4.2.1 Reinforcing Materials
Epoxy resins form thermosetting materials and are being combined
with a hardener, which enables cross- links to be established between the
epoxy molecules and to produce a thermoset material.
The epoxy that was used for this work is type VERTA that is
produced by VERTA COMPANY-TURKEY and it consists from two
components of a high grade, low viscosity, colorless materials, and the
density at 23˚C is approximately 1.05gr/cm 3 and has a mixing ratio of 2:1
based on weight, and on application time of 30 min at approximately 23˚C
and after the solidification process, it demonstrates low density and high
electrical resistance.
Carbon Black powder that was used with small particle size which
diameter 33 nm.

4.2.2 Matrix material

The matrix material used natural rubber which prepared previously by
special mixer as shown in Fig. 4-2 and added some of agent's materials in the
limited percentages according to standard reference Maurice Morton, in
1973 [51] as follow:-

Dutrex oil Small amount may be added to control and standardize the
viscosity of the individuals' batches.

Stearic acid A small amount of Stearic acid has long been standard addition
to natural rubber mixes to assist the action of accelerators and serves similar

36
purpose in most sulphur vulcanizable rubber, it is also aide processing by
exerting a plasticizing action and reducing the tendency.

OBTS, NOX, IPPV (Vulcanize Agents) in combination with vulcanizing

agents, these materials reduce the vulcanize time (cure time) by increasing the
rate of the vulcanization in most cases; the physical properties of the products
are also improved.

Sulphur (Vulcanize Agent) these materials are necessary for vulcanization

since without, the chemical crosslinking reactions involving these agents, no
improvement in the physical properties of the rubber mixes are obtained.

Zinic oxide The rubber industry zinic oxide is second in important only to
sulphur without Zinic oxide most organic accelerators will be not function
property. Zinic oxide was be found in almost every compounding for
activation of accelerators a small amounts 2 or 3 part of zinic oxide per 100
part of rubber.

Paraffin wax Acts as a softener, and helps processing by reducing adhesion

to mill and rolling, blooming to the surface, protect the surface against ozone,
and to reduce attack by chemicals such as oxidizing agents Stern, in 1972
[50]
4.3 Materials Specimens Preparation
The steps of materials specimen preparation are explained below:
1- Prepare the materials which must be dough in the mixer according to
standard measured quantities ,these dough was taken from standard of
tires public company which called "Tread Dough" known as
specifications, as follow:-

37
 Table 4-1 Contents of Dough
Material name Quantity (gm)
Natural rubber 178.65
Carbon black 90.75
Dutrex oil 12.2
Zinic oxide 7.15
Stearic acid 3.57
OBTS 2.719
Sulphur 3.007
NOX 1.776
IPPV 2.98
Paraffin wax 3.5783

Sum 306.3803

2- The resin and the hardener were mixed at room temperature (25°C) at
a ratio 2:1 according to weight, the mixing process was continued for
(15minutes) until the mixture becomes homogenous and its
temperature was raised.
3- Natural rubber which is prepared previously by special mixer was
mixed with carbon black and epoxy resin for each percentage (0%,
20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%) from the filler (carbon black) and
put in mixer; the mixing process was continued for 5 minutes until the
mixture becomes homogenous and mix all the other components of
dough with each others to become ready.
4- The dough was passing across in rolling process by two different
speed rollers to produce a sheet with thickness about 2 mm as shown
in the Fig.4-2

38
 5- This sheet was left for about (24 hours) at room temperature (25°C) to
obtain the optimum state for the dough.
6- The sheet then divided in to three equal parts.
7- A special mould was coated with silicon solution to prevent adhesion
between sample and the moulds, mould dimensions are (14x14x2) cm.
8- The first part of the sheet will be vulcanize in the optimum condition
of vulcanize (150 bar, 140ºC, 40 minutes) by a special mould prepares
previously in the heated press as shown in the Fig.4-7.
9- The second part of the sheet will be left without vulcanize to test in
this state.
10- The third part of the sheet will be reinforced by flax threads which
are used in the tires industry
11- This procedure will be repeated for each percentage of epoxy resin.

4.4 Moulds Preparation

To produce samples for the tests (Tensile, Compression and Hardness),
one mould for each test is prepared with standard dimensions and then these
moulds are used to make samples.

4.4.1 Tensile Test Specimens

The tensile test specimens have been produced according to (ASTM
D412-37) as shown with the standard dimensions in Fig.4-4a for: -
1. Rubber vulcanize for each percentage.
2. Rubber without vulcanize for each percentages.
3. Rubber reinforcement by flax threads for each percentages.
The tensile test specimens were produced using the mould shown in
Fig.4-4b.

39
 115
33 (mm)

6 (mm)

2 (mm)

a- Standard tensile test specimen

Figure 4 -3 Tensile Test Specimens

b- Device to cut tensile test specimen

Figure 4-4 tensile test specimen

40
4.4.2 Compression Test Specimens
The compression test specimens have been produced according to
(ASTM-D395-78) as shown with the standard dimensions in Fig.4-5 where
the length to diameter ratio is approximately 1:2.

Spacers Spacers test

13.2 mm

6.6 mm

Specimen Washers

Figure 4- 5 Components of Compression Device

The compression test specimens were produced using the mould shown
in Fig.4-5 and after solidification; the grinding processes were applied to the
ends of each specimen to reduce friction between specimen ends and
deforming tools.

41
4.4.3 Hardness Test
Hardness is one of the properties which may be measured with out
destruction or damage to the sample and is a most important characteristic of
rubber and flexible plastics. The hardness of the latter is much more
susceptible to temperature change than the former, the normal specified test
temperature for measuring the hardness of rubber being 20+2ºC. An
instrument used to measuring the hardness is called "Shore Durometer" as
shown in the Fig.4-6, it is like other portable or pocket instrument and it is
simply pressed on to sample and read the scale noted. This reading depends
on the degree of penetration in to the sample of a spring loaded metal pointer;
a very hard rubber a reading is about 90 to 95 and the soft rubbers reading
down to about 30.

Figure 4-6 Shore Durometer

42
Figure 4-7 Heated Press Machine

43
 Chapter Five
Results and Discussion

5.1 Introduction
This chapter displays the results of each test by curves and tables which
are discussed to show the differences resulting from adding epoxy resin to the
natural rubber with different percentages on the mechanical properties;
tensile, compression, and others. The data is obtained from the mean results
of three standard specimens for all tests.

5.2 Tensile Test

Tensile test is one of the most used methods for determining the
modulus of elasticity; yield tensile stress, yield strain, ultimate tensile strength
and ductility of materials. The test involves an axial tensile load being applied
to a standard specimen of rectangular cross section Fig.5-1 with a constant
strain rate at about (100mm/min) by hydraulic tensile device shown in Fig.5-2
and this causes the specimen to elongate and finally fractured Fig.5-3.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 5-1 Tensile Specimens

44
 Figure 5.2 Computerized Test Meter

Fracture region

80% 100%
0% 20% 40% 60%

Figure 5-3 Tested Specimens

45
5.2.1 Tensile Test for standard vulcanized specimen
The behavior of rubber when stretched constitutes one of the most
important methods to investigate its physical properties. The common
procedure is to stretch the rubber at a fixed and uniform rate, when expressed
graphically the load which is applied and the elongation in the x-y axis. The
load is often referred to as "stress" and the elongation as "strain ", the
resultant graph begin known as a stress- strain curve. Figs.5-4 and 5-5 are
typical of the graphs obtained with a vulcanized rubber.
The curve may be divided in to three parts. First section is concave
toward the elongation axis showing that the elongation here increases more
rapidly than does load or stress. The second section of the curve is
substantially straight whilst the third section is concave in the opposite
direction to the first section. At the second section the load is increasing more
rapidly than the elongation because of changes brought about in the rubber
through stretching in this case the crystallization in the natural rubber occurs.
Finally the rubber breaks.
Figures 5-6 and 5-7 show a comparison between the standard curve of
(0% epoxy) and the curve which (20% epoxy) added, this comparison shows
the difference in the values of (stress – strain) and (load – elongation) curves
,which explain as ,the strain and elongation is increased against decreased in
stress and load after add 20% epoxy to the standard specimen in the end of the
first part of curve stress will be concentrated on area of cross section of
specimen and its length increased rapidly ,then nicking accurse and continue
until fracture in specimen, also show that the reduction in the area under the
curve (by using Simpson’s rules and MathCAD program to determine) which
mean toughness in Fig.5-6 and the work done by tensile in Fig.5-7 was
decreased by 6.5% upon the standard that lead to conclusion that the material
begin to change from ductile to brittle material .

46
 Figures 5-8 and 5-9 show a change between the standard curve of (0%
epoxy) and the curve which (40% epoxy) added which show that the load and
stress values are decreasing and, also decreasing in the strain and elongation
when increasing the percentage of epoxy resin because effect of amount of
epoxy resin which made the material more brittle and also, there was high
reduction in the percentage of toughness and work done by tensile test, these
reduction reach to 33.7%.
Figures 5-10 and 5-11 refer to the difference between the standard
curve of (0% epoxy) and the curve which (60% epoxy) added, which show
that rapidly decreasing in the values of stress and load and decreasing in the
strain and elongation, increasing the percentage of epoxy resin to 60% due to
rapidly reduction in the value of toughness and the work done was accrues
arrive to 48.5% from the standard.
Figures 5-12 and 5-13 illustrate the change between the standard curve
of (0% epoxy) and the curve which percentage of (80% epoxy) added, which
also show that the load and stress values are decreasing and the value of
reduction in the toughness and the work done reach to 49.1% from the
standard .
Figures 5-14 and 5-15 refer to the difference between the standard
curve of (0% epoxy) and the curve which percentage of (100% epoxy) added,
which also show that the load and stress values are decreasing and the value
of percentage reduction in the toughness and work done by tensile test equal
to 56.7% .
After all these comparisons, Figs.5-16 and 5-17 make a comparison
among all the percentages with the standard curve to show the differences
among them. These explained that the stress and load are decreasing; also
strain and elongation are decreasing as well as increasing the percentages of
epoxy resin against increasing percentage of reduction of toughness and work

47
done from 0% in the standard curve until it reach to 56.7% in 100% epoxy
resin.
Table 5-1 shows the values of the young modulus decreased from
4.8769 N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to 1.2405 N/mm² in 100% epoxy resin,
yield tensile stress decreased from 5.1333 N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to
4.0111N/mm² in 100% epoxy resin, yield strain decreased from 204.6 to
13.653, yield load decreased 61.6N to 26N, yield elongations decreased,
resilience increased, toughness decreased, work done decreased and
percentage of reduction increased from 6.5% in 20% epoxy resin to 56.7% in
100% epoxy comparison with standard .

5.2.2 Tensile Test for unvulcanized specimen

For unvulcanized rubber the general shape of the curve is
approximately similar but the behavior is much more susceptible to changes
in the test conditions than with vulcanized rubber. At increased temperatures
the elongation at break of unvulcanized rubber is greatly increased and the
tensile strength is slightly reduced.
Figures 5-18 and 5-19 curves are divided in to three parts
approximately similar to the vulcanized curves. First part is concave toward
the elongation and strain axis showing that the elongation here increasing
more rapidly than does load or stress, second part of the curve is substantially
straight and third part is concave in the opposite direction to the first part of
curve. In the second part strain and elongation is increased more rapidly than
the stress and load, also find increased in resilience of material, increased
toughness and increased in the percentage of increment in work done.
Figures 5-20 and 5-21 show the difference between the standard
unvulcanized curve and the curve for the material which added (20% of
epoxy), then notice increasing in load and stress with decreasing in extension,

48
strain and rapidly increased in the percentage of increment in the toughness
and work done which reach to 68% this show that the influence of adding
epoxy resin change material to brittle which be tough.
Figures 5-22 to 5-29 represent comparisons the curves of load–
extension and curve of stress- strain for the percentages of epoxy (40%, 60%,
80% and 100%) added to unvulcanized rubber with the standard curve 0%
epoxy and notice that load and stress increased when increased percentage of
epoxy resin against extension and strain which decreased because material be
brittle and tough ,then percentage of increment between standard and
percentage of epoxy increased from 68.6 % in 40% epoxy to 89.4 % in 100%
epoxy resin .
Figures 5-30 and 5-31 show the difference among variables percentages
of epoxy (20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) added to unvulcanized rubber and
these refer to increasing in the stress and load against decreasing in strain and
elongation, also increased in percentage of increment in the toughness and
work done from 68 % in 20% epoxy to 89.4 % in 100% epoxy resin.
Table 5-2 shows the values of the young modulus increased from
0.8382 N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to 3.9444 N/mm² in 100% epoxy resin,
yield tensile stress increased from 0.654 N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to
1.282N/mm² in 100% epoxy resin, yield strain decreased from 16.372 to
5.635, yield load decreased 10.3N to 4.1N, yield elongations decreased ,
resilience increased, toughness increased, work done increased and
percentage of increment increased from 68% in 20% epoxy resin to 89.4% in
100% epoxy comparison with standard .

49
5.2.3 Tensile Test for Reinforcement specimen
The Reinforcement rubber was tested in this part of work. The
specimen is reinforced by flax threads (the tensile strength for the flax threads
alone was measured of 20.5 N/mm²) the curve behavior is much more
susceptible to flax threads.
Figures 5-32 and 5-33 these curves are divided in to two parts. First
section is obey to Hooks law and approximately straight line, second section
is concave toward of elongation and strain ,then load and stress increased on
the cross section of specimen until the nicking accurse ,then fracture accurse
and failed the specimen.
Figures 5-34 and 5-35 show the difference between the standard
reinforced curve and the curve for the material which added (20% of epoxy),
then show an increase in the load applied and stress with decreasing in strain
and extension because material take a brittle phase, also note that increased in
the percentage of increment in toughness and work done by tensile to reach to
62.8% upon standard curve.
Figures 5-36 to 5-43 represent comparisons of the curves of load –
extension and curve of stress- strain for the percentages of epoxy (40%, 60%,
80% and 100%) added to reinforced rubber with the standard curve of 0%
epoxy resin ,these curves show that the load and stress were increased as
increased percentages of epoxy resin from (0% to 100%), also resilience and
toughness increased and the percentages of increment in toughness and work
done by tensile test increased from 62.8% in the 20% epoxy resin until reach
to 137.4% in the 100% epoxy resin.

Figures 5-44 and 5-45 show the difference among variables percentages
of epoxy (20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) added to reinforced rubber with
standard curve 0% epoxy resin these refer to increasing in the stress and load

50
against decreasing in strain and elongation also toughness increased and the
percentages of increment in toughness and work done by tensile test increased
from 62.8% in the 20% epoxy resin until reach to 137.4% in the 100% epoxy
resin.

Table 5-3 shows the values of the young modulus increased from 36.49
N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to 45.12 N/mm² in 100% epoxy resin, yield tensile
stress increased from 17.156 N/mm² in 0% epoxy resin to 27.472N/mm² in
100% epoxy resin, yield strain increased from 25.793 to 59.443, yield load
increased from 128.8N to 466.5N, yield elongations increased from 10.317 to
31.777, resilience increased, toughness increased, work done increased and
percentage of increment increased from 62.8% in 20% epoxy resin to 137.4%
in 100% epoxy comparison with standard .

51
 Table 5-1 Determination of tensile values for vulcanized rubber

Work
young yield tensile yield yield Percentages
Percentage of yield Resilience Toughness done by
modulus stress load elongation of
epoxy strain N/mm² N/mm² tensile
N/mm² N/mm² N mm reduction
[Link]
Standard (0%) 4.8769 5.1333 204.6 61.6 89.389 0.235 4.891 48.91

20% epoxy 3.495 4.9415 170.8 56.3 88.522 0.361 4.570 45.7 6.5%

40% epoxy 2.0229 4.6458 100.14 31.75 40.056 0.433 3.238 32.38 33.7%

60% epoxy 1.4712 4.5250 11.816 30.3 18.7265 0.523 2.517 25.17 48.5%

80% epoxy 1.2610 4.3167 15.206 31.8 16.0825 0.585 2.491 24.91 49.1%

100% epoxy 1.2405 4.0111 13.653 26.133 13.461 0.687 2.117 21.17 56.7%

52
 Table 5-2 Determination of tensile values for unvulcanized rubber
yield Work
young yield yield Percentages
Percentage of tensile yield Resilience Toughness done by
modulus load elongation of
epoxy stress strain N/mm² N/mm² tensile
N/mm² N mm increment
N/mm² [Link]
Standard (0%) 0.8382 0.654 16.372 10.30 5.490 0.13 0.379 3.79

20% epoxy 1.8083 1.153 10.343 9.70 4.137 0.133 0.638 6.38 68%

40% epoxy 2.2029 1.178 10.510 8.50 4.2040 0.146 0.639 6.39 68.6%

60% epoxy 2.9986 1.188 9.077 6.10 3.2310 0.207 0.657 6.57 73.3%

80% epoxy 3.1883 1.254 8.783 5.10 3.9130 0.219 0.687 6.87 81.2%

100% epoxy 3.9444 1.282 5.635 4.10 2.2540 0.228 0.718 7.18 89.4%

53
 Table 5-3 Determination of tensile values for Reinforced rubber
yield Work
young yield yield Percentages
Percentage of tensile yield Resilience Toughness done by
modulus load elongation of
epoxy stress strain N/mm² N/mm² tensile
N/mm² N mm increment
N/mm² [Link]
Standard (0%) 36.49 17.156 25.793 128.80 10.317 0.07 2.42 24.2

20% epoxy 37.96 18.789 51.982 338.2 20.793 0.122 3.94 39.4 62.8%

40% epoxy 38.88 19.194 52.067 345.5 20.827 0.135 4.549 45.49 87.9%

60% epoxy 39.26 20.544 53.773 343.80 25.510 0.192 4.634 46.34 91.4%

80% epoxy 43.17 24.522 58.345 461.80 27.338 0.197 5.56 55.6 129.7%

100% epoxy 45.12 27.472 59.443 466..5 31.777 0.203 5.745 57.45 137.4%

54
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

30.00
Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00 b

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00

Strain
a
Figure 5-4 a- Stress – Strain Curve for Standard 0% Epoxy Vulcanize Rubber
b-Stress – Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize Rubber [50, 51]

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

Extension (mm)
Figure 5-5 Load – Extension Curve for Standard 0% Epoxy Vulcanize Rubber

55
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

20% Epoxy

30.00
Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00 800.00

Strain

Figure 5-6 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 20% Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

20% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-7 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 20% Epoxy

56
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

40% Epoxy

30.00

Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00

Strain

Figure 5-8 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 40% Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

40% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-9 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 40% Epoxy

57
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

60% Epoxy

30.00

Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00

Strain

Figure 5-10 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 60% Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

60% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

Extension (mm)
Figure 5-11 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard
Vulcanize Rubber with 60% Epoxy

58
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

80% Epoxy

30.00

Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00

Strain

Figure 5-12 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 80% Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

80% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-13 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 80% Epoxy

59
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

100% Epoxy

30.00

Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00

Strain

Figure 5-14 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 100% Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

100% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-15 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Vulcanize Rubber with 100% Epoxy

60
 40.00

Standard Vulcanize [50, 51]

20% Epoxy
40% Epoxy
60% Epoxy
30.00
80% Epoxy
100% Epoxy

Stress(N/mm )
2

20.00

10.00

0.00

0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00 800.00

Strain
Figure 5-16 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard Vulcanize
Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

400.00

Standard [50, 51]

20% Epoxy
40% Epoxy
60% Epoxy
300.00 80% Epoxy
100% Epoxy
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-17 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard Vulcanize

Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

61
 1.00
Standard unvulcanize [50,51]

0.80

Stress (N/mm ) 0.60

2

0.40

0.20

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain

Figure 5-18 Stress-Strain Curve for Standard 0% Epoxy

Unvulcanize Rubber

16.00

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

12.00
Load (N)

8.00

4.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-19 Load – Extension Curve for Standard 0% Epoxy

Unvulcanized Rubber

62
 2.00
Standard unvulcanize [50,51]
20 % Epoxy

1.60

Stress (N/mm )
1.20
2

0.80

0.40

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain

Figure 5-20 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 20% Epoxy

16.00
Standard unvulcanize [50,51]
20% Epoxy

12.00
Load (N)

8.00

4.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)
Figure 5-21 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard
Unvulcanize Rubber with 20% Epoxy

63
 1.60

standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

40% Epoxy

1.20

Stress (N/mm )
2

0.80

0.40

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain

Figure 5-22 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 40% Epoxy

20.00

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

40 % Epoxy

16.00

12.00
Load (N)

8.00

4.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-23 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 40% Epoxy

64
 2.00

standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

60% Epoxy

1.60

Stress (N/mm ) 1.20

2

0.80

0.40

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain

Figure 5-24 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 60% Epoxy

25.00

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

60 % Epoxy

20.00

15.00
Load (N)

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-25 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 60% Epoxy

65
 2.00

standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

80% Epoxy

1.60

Stress (N/mm )
2
1.20

0.80

0.40

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain
Figure 5-26 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard
Unvulcanize Rubber with 80% Epoxy

25.00

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

80 % Epoxy

20.00

15.00
Load (N)

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-27 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 80% Epoxy

66
 2.00

standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

100% Epoxy

1.60

Stress (N/mm ) 1.20

2

0.80

0.40

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain
Figure 5-28 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard
Unvulcanize Rubber with 100% Epoxy

25.00

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

100 % Epoxy

20.00

15.00
Load (N)

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-29 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with 100% Epoxy

67
 standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

2.00 20% Epoxy

40% Epoxy
60% Epoxy
80% Epoxy
100% Epoxy

1.50
Stress (N/mm )
2

1.00

0.50

0.00

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

Strain

Figure 5-30 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

Standard unvulcanize [50, 51]

20 % Epoxy
40 % Epoxy
60 % Epoxy
80 % Epoxy
100 % Epoxy
20.00
Load (N)

10.00

0.00

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-31 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Unvulcanize Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

68
 12.00

Standard

8.00
Stress (N/mm )
2

4.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)

Figure 5-32 Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

0% Epoxy Reinforced Rubber

200.00
Standard

160.00

120.00
Load (N)

80.00

40.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-33 Load – Extension Carve for Standard

0% Epoxy Reinforced Rubber

69
 25.00

Standard
20% Epoxy

20.00

Stress (N/mm )
2
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)

Figure 5-34 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 20% Epoxy

400.00
Standard
20% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-35 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 20% Epoxy

70
 25.00

Standard
40% Epoxy

20.00

Stress (N/mm )
2
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)

Figure 5-36 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 40% Epoxy

400.00
Standard
40% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-37 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 40% Epoxy

71
 25.00

Standard
60% Epoxy

20.00

Stress (N/mm )
2
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)

Figure 5-38 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 60% Epoxy

400.00
Standard
60% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-39 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 60% Epoxy

72
 25.00
Standard
80% Epoxy

20.00

Stress (N/mm )
2
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)
Figure 5-40 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard
Reinforced Rubber with 80% Epoxy

400.00
Standard
80% Epoxy

300.00
Load (N)

200.00

100.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-41 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 80% Epoxy

73
 25.00
Standard
100% Epoxy

20.00

Stress (N/mm )
2
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00

Strain (%)

Figure 5-42 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 100% Epoxy

300.00
Standard
100% Epoxy

200.00
Load (N)

100.00

0.00

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Extension (mm)

Figure 5-43 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with 100% Epoxy

74
 2

Figure 5-44 Comparison Stress – Strain Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

Figure 5-45 Comparison Load – Extension Curve for Standard

Reinforced Rubber with all Percentage of Epoxy

75
5-3 Hardness Test
Hardness test is one of the important tests in the rubber industry for
determining stiffness of the rubber. Also in this part Hardness was measured
for all the percentages of epoxy added to the vulcanized, unvulcanized and
reinforced rubber.
Table 5-4 shows the values of the Hardness test to the vulcanized
rubber and refers to the increased the Hardness towards when the percentages
of the epoxy resin are increasing. This means that a hardness property was
improved when added the epoxy.

Table 5-4 Values of the Hardness Test to the Vulcanized Rubber

percentage of epoxy Hardness value
Standard (0%) 62
20% epoxy 70
40% epoxy 81
60% epoxy 87
80% epoxy 92
100% epoxy 95

Table 5-5 represents the values of the Hardness test to the unvulcanized
rubber and shows to the increased in the Hardness toward when the epoxy
resin is added, this means that a hardness property was improved when the
epoxy is added.

76
 Table 5-5 Values of the Hardness Test to the Unvulcanized Rubber
percentage of epoxy Hardness value
Standard (0%) 25
20% epoxy 32
40% epoxy 52
60% epoxy 55
80% epoxy 72
100% epoxy 74

Table 5-6 show the values of the Hardness test to the reinforced rubber
and also refer to the increased the Hardness when the epoxy resin is added,
which means that a hardness property was improved when added the epoxy.

Table 5-6 Values of the Hardness Test to the Reinforced Rubber

percentage of epoxy Hardness value
Standard (0%) 37
20% epoxy 44
40% epoxy 60
60% epoxy 63
80% epoxy 72
100% epoxy 82

77
5.4 Compression Test
Compression testing is one of the most used methods for testing the
rubber intended for use in applications in which the rubber will be subjected
to compressive stress in the air.
When determining the compression set by the constant load method,
the specimen in the form of a flat disc according to (ASTM-D395-78) is
compressed by calibrated spring washers. In constant deflection methods a
specimen of the same type is compressed to affix percentage of its original
thickness by clamping it between rigid parallel plates fitted with distance
pieces, the diminution in thickness is measured after a fixed period of
compression and recovery.
Table 5-7 represents the results of compression set by the constant
deflection for the standard vulcanize rubber and five other percentages of
epoxy resins which added to the natural rubber (20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and
100% ), then this table shows that the compression set is increasing
proportionally with increasing the percentages of epoxy resin .

Table 5-7 Compression Set of Vulcanize Rubber Specimens

Percentage of epoxy Compression set (C) %
Standard (0%) 45
20% epoxy 75
40% epoxy 140
60% epoxy 165
80% epoxy 175
100% epoxy 180

78
 Table 5-8 shows that the results of compression set by the constant
deflection for the standard unvulcanize rubber and five other percentages of
epoxy resin which added to the natural rubber (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%
and 100%). This table shows that the compression set is decreasing with
increasing the percentages of epoxy resin.

Table 5-7 Compression Set of unvulcanize Rubber Specimens

Percentage of epoxy Compression set (C) %
Standard (0%) 200
20% epoxy 190
40% epoxy 170
60% epoxy 150
80% epoxy 120
100% epoxy 110

79
 Chapter Six
Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Conclusions
The main important conclusions that can be drawn from this work are as
follows:
1- Particulate composite of natural rubber with epoxy resin is a new
material, which can be used for different fields.
2- Increasing percentages of epoxy resin in the vulcanize rubber leads to a
decrease in Young’s modulus for tensile test.
3- Increasing percentages of epoxy resin in unvulcanized and reinforced
rubber leads to an increase in Young’s modulus for tensile test.
4- Yield stress for natural rubber with epoxy resin is decreased as
increasing of percentages epoxy resin in vulcanize rubber for tensile.
5- Yield stress for natural rubber with epoxy resin is increased as increasing
of percentages epoxy resin in unvulcanized and reinforced rubber for
tensile.
6- Compression set for natural rubber with epoxy resin is increased as
increasing of percentages epoxy resin in vulcanize rubber.
7- Compression set for natural rubber with epoxy resin is decreased as
increasing of percentages epoxy resin in unvulcanized rubber.
8- Hardness values to vulcanized, unvulcanized and reinforced rubber were
increased towards when the percentages of the epoxy resin increasing.
9- Resilience values to vulcanized, unvulcanized and reinforced rubber
were increased towards when the percentages of the epoxy resin
increasing.

80
 10- Toughness for natural rubber with epoxy resin is decreased as
increasing of percentages epoxy resin in vulcanize rubber and increased
as increasing of percentages epoxy resin in unvulcanized and reinforced
rubber.
11- Work done by tensile test for natural rubber with epoxy resin is
decreased as increasing of percentages epoxy resin in vulcanize rubber
and increased as increasing of percentages epoxy resin in unvulcanized
and reinforced rubber.
12- Percentage of reduction in toughness to vulcanized rubber was
increased towards when the percentages of the epoxy resin increasing.
13- Percentage of increment in toughness to unvulcanized and reinforced
rubber was increased towards when the percentages of the epoxy resin
increasing.

6.2 Recommendations
1. Study thermal conductivity for natural rubber with epoxy resin.
2. Investigate the wear and friction properties for natural rubber with epoxy
resin.
3. Study the aging properties for natural rubber with epoxy resin.
4. Investigate the effect of temperature to the mechanical properties for
standard and reinforced rubber.
5. Study the effect of particle size to the mechanical properties for standard
and reinforced rubber.

81
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“Failure of Cord-Rubber Composites by Pull-Out of Transverse
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43. Huang Y.S., Yeoh O.H. “Crack Initiation and Propagation in Model
Cord-Rubber Composites”,Rubber Division, American Chemical
Society, Cincinatti, Ohio, October 18-21, 1988 pp. 709-731
44. Lee B.L., Liu D.S. “Cumulative Damage of Fiber-Reinforced
Elastomer Composites under Fatigue Loading”,Journal of Composite
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45. Martin R.H. “Incorporating Interlaminar Fracture Mechanics Into
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46. Reirhart T.J., Dostal C.A., Woods .M.S.,Frissell H.J.,Ronk A.W. ,
Jenkins D.M.,Okeete K.L.,Pilarezyk K.L.,Stedfeld R.L. and Mills K.M.
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49. Annual Book of ASTM Standards,Part 37"Rubber Natural and
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51. Maurice Morton "Rubber Technology ", Second Edition, 1973, Litton
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86
 ‫ﺷﻜﺮ و ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ‬

‫اﻟﺤﻤﺪ ﷲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ أﻧﻌﻢ و ﻟﻪ اﻟﺸﻜﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ أﻟﻬﻢ و اﻟﺜﻨﺎء ﺑﻤﺎ ﻗﺪم‬

‫ﻳ ﻮد اﻟﺒﺎﺣ ﺚ أن ﻳﻌﺒ ﺮ ﻋ ﻦ ﺧ ﺎﻟﺺ ﺷ ﻜﺮﻩ و إﻣﺘﻨﺎﻧ ﻪ اﻟ ﻰ اﻻﺳ ﺘﺎذ اﻟﻤ ﺸﺮف‬
‫اﻟ ﺪآﺘﻮر ﻣﺤ ﺴﻦ ﺟﺒ ﺮ ﺟ ﻮﻳﺞ و اﻟ ﺪآﺘﻮر ه ﺎﻧﻲ ﻋﺰﻳ ﺰ اﻣ ﻴﻦ ﻟﻤ ﺎ أﺑ ﺪﻳﺎﻩ ﻣ ﻦ ﻧ ﺼﺢ ﺳ ﺪﻳﺪ‬
‫و ﺗﻮﺻﻴﺎت ﺣﻜﻴﻤﺔ ﻷﺟﻞ إﻋﺪاد هﺬا أﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ‪ ،‬آﻤ ﺎ و ﻳﺘﻘ ﺪم ﺑﺎﻟ ﺸﻜﺮ اﻟ ﻰ اﻟﻜ ﺎدر اﻻداري ﻓ ﻲ‬
‫ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ وﻋﻤﺎدة آﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻳﻮد أﻳﻀﺎ ﺷﻜﺮ اﻟﻜﻮادر اﻻدارﻳ ﺔ و اﻟﻔﻨﻴ ﺔ ﻓ ﻲ اﻟ ﺸﺮآﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣ ﺔ ﻟﻠ ﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺎﻃﻴ ﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪﻳﻮاﻧﻴﺔ وﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮات ﻟﻤﺎ ﻗﺪﻣﻮﻩ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﻓﻲ اﻋﺪاد هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ‪.‬‬
‫آﻤ ﺎ ﻳ ﻮد ﺷ ﻜﺮ ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺘ ﻪ اﻟﻐﺎﻟﻴ ﺔ و أﺻ ﺪﻗﺎﺋﻪ اﻻﻋ ﺰاء ﻟﻤ ﺎ ﺗﺤﻤﻠ ﻮا واﻟ ﺬﻳﻦ ﻗ ﺪﻣﻮا ﻣ ﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺳﻌﻬﻢ ﻻﺗﻤﺎم هﺬا اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ‬
‫ﻧﺒﻴﻞ ﺷﻼل ﺛﺎﻣﺮ اﻟﻤﺮﻣﻀﻲ‬
‫‪2007‬‬
 ‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬

‫اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ اﻧﻮاع ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ) اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ‪ ،‬اﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ واﻟﻤﻄﺎط‬
‫اﻟﻤﻘﻮى( ﻗﺪ درﺳﺖ ﻓﻲ هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ‪،‬وآﻞ ﻧﻮع ﻣﻦ اﻻﻧﻮاع اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ اﺧﺬ ﺑﺴﺖ ﻧﺴﺐ ﻣﻦ راﺗﻴﻨﺞ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ‬
‫)ﺻﻔﺮ‪ %80،%60،%40،%20،%‬و‪ (%100‬واﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت ﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺮآﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻼﻃﺎرات ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺪﻳﻮاﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﺣﺪى ﻋﺠﻨﺎت اﻻﻃﺎرات وﺗﺪﻋﻰ )‪.(Tread Dough‬‬

‫ﻗﻴﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻟﻤﺮوﻧﺔ آﺎن ﻟﻬﺎ اآﺒﺮ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ وﺻﻞ اﻟﻰ ‪، %74.5‬‬
‫واﻋﻠﻰ ارﺗﻔﺎع آﺎن ﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ واﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻘﻮى وﺻﻞ اﻟﻰ ‪ %317.5‬و‬
‫‪ %23.5‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ آﺬﻟﻚ ﻗﻴﻢ اﺟﻬﺎد اﻟﺨﻀﻮع واﻧﻔﻌﺎل اﻟﺨﻀﻮع وﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﺸﺪ آﺬﻟﻚ ﺣﺴﺒﺖ ﻟﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﺎﻻت وﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﻧﺴﺐ راﺗﻴﻨﺞ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻗﻴﻢ اﻟﻤﺮوﻧﺔ او اﻻرﺗﺪادﻳﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﺸﻐﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺠﺰ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺤﺺ اﻟﺸﺪ و اﻟﺼﻼدة وﻣﻘﺪار اﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺌﻮﻳﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺴﺎرة واﻟﺮﺑﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺼﻼدة اﻳﻀًﺎ ﺣﺴﺒﺖ وآﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﻨﺴﺐ ‪:‬ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺨﺴﺎرة ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫)‪ %6.5‬اﻟﻰ ‪ (%56.7‬وﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ واﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻘﻮى آﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺮﺑﺢ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪%68‬‬
‫اﻟﻰ ‪ (%89.4‬و)‪ %62.8‬اﻟﻰ ‪ (%137.4‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ ‪ ،‬هﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺣﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﺄﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬
‫) ‪ (Simpson’s rules‬وﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ )‪.( MathCAD‬‬

‫اﻟﺼﻼﺑﺔ آﺬﻟﻚ درﺳﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻧﻮاع اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ واﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ واﻟﻤﻘﻮى وﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﻧﺴﺐ‬
‫راﺗﻴﻨﺞ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ ‪ ،‬ووﺟﺪ ان اﻟﺼﻼﺑﺔ ﺗﺰداد ﻃﺮدﻳًﺎ ﻣﻊ زﻳﺎدة ﻧﺴﺒﺔ راﺗﻴﻨﺞ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ وﺗﺘﺮاوح ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ %62‬اﻟﻰ ‪ (%95‬واﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ %25‬اﻟﻰ ‪ (%74‬وﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﻮى ﺑﻴﻦ‬
‫)‪ %37‬اﻟﻰ ‪. (%82‬‬

‫ﺟﻬﺎز اﻧﻀﻐﺎط ﺧﺎص ﺻﻨﻊ ﻃﺒﻘًﺎ اﻟﻰ ﻟﻠﻤﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ‪ ASTM‬ﻟﻐﺮض ﻓﺤﺺ ﻋﻴﻨﺎت‬
‫اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎط ﺑﺄﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎط اﻟﺴﺎآﻦ‪،‬اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﺣﺴﺒﺖ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرب ووﺟﺪ ﺗﺎﺛﻴﺮ اﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫راﺗﻴﻨﺞ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ‪ ،‬ذﻟﻚ وﺿﺢ ان ﻗﻴﻤﺔ اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﺗﺰداد ﺑﺰﻳﺎدة ﻧﺴﺒﺔ راﺗﻴﻨﺞ‬
‫اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ %45‬اﻟﻰ ‪، (%180‬اﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﺎط اﻟﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻔﻠﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻓﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺑﺰﻳﺎدة ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻻﻳﺒﻮآﺴﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ )‪ %200‬اﻟﻰ ‪.(%110‬‬

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