Detail Discussion on Boiler

and it’s Auxiliaries

Steam Generator
• Steam Pressure is Pre-set
• Steam Temperature is Pre-set

Definition of Boiler
• A Boiler is a closed vessel in
which water or other fluid is
heated. The fluid does not
necessarily boil.
 Phenomenon Water (Steam Generation)
Sensible Latent Heat Sensible Latent Heat Sensible
Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization or condensation Heat
150oC

Water boiling
100oC
Temperature oC

Steam Condensing

Change of State
Ice Melting
Steam
0oC Water
Ice Freezing
ICE Change of State
-17.77oC
37 kJ 334 kJ 418 kJ 2250 kJ 97.4 kJ
Heat (kJ) per kg of Water
 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion and Solidification for Water

Receives FORMS 1 kg of
1 kg of Ice 334.9 kJ of
Water at
at 0OC Heat
FORMS GIVES UP 0OC

Specific Latent Heat of Evaporation and Condensation for Water

1 kg of Receives FORMS 1 kg of
2256.9 kJ of
Water at Steam at
Heat
100OC FORMS GIVES UP 100OC

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 Pressure Temperature Relationship for Water
Temperature °C

400 374.15°C
CRITICAL POINT
350° 22123 kPa
15000 kPa
300° 10000 kPa
250° 5000 kPa
3000 kPa
200°

150° 600 kPa

100° 100 kPa

50°

0° Pressure kPa
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
• Power required to be generated
• Operating Pressure
• Fuel-quality and type
• Water availibility and its quality
• Probable load factor
• Location of the powerhouse or process
plants
• Cost of operations and maintenance
• Cost of installations and erection
• Availibility of floor space
 It should be capable of quick start-up

Should meet large load fluctuations

ESSENTIAL Occupy less floor space
QUALITY
CRITERIA OF Should afford easy maintenance and inspection

GOOD Should essentially posses the capacity of producing

BOILER maximum steam with minimum fuel consumption
Light and simple in construction

Various joints should be accessible for inspection and

should be away from direct flame impact
Classification of Boiler
Classification based on Use:

For power
Plant

Stationary For Utility

Boiler Power Plant

For Plant
Boiler Process

Locomotive
Mobile
boiler
Marine
 Based on Tube and Furnace Position

On the basis of
On the basis of
furnace Position
Tube of Boiler
of Boiler

Internally
Water Tube
Fired

Externally
Fire Tube
Fired
 Coal Fired Boiler

Oil Fired Boiler

Solid/Liquid/Gase
ous Fuel
Gas Fired Boiler
Boiler Electrical Energy
Gas & Oil/Duel
Fuel Boiler
Nuclear Energy
HRSG without
Hot Waste Gases Burner
as By-product of
Process HRSG with Burner
 On the basis of Steam On the basis of
Circulation Draught

Natural Natural Draught

Circulation Boiler Boiler

Forced Forced Draught

Circulation Boiler Boiler

Induced Draught
Boiler

Balanced
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS Draught Boiler
+8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 12
 Boiler

Sub Critical Super Critical

Pressure boiler Pressure boiler
(P<16.67 MPa) (P>22.13 MPa)

Low Pressure Medium High Pressure Super High

boiler Pressure boiler boiler Pressure boiler
(P<1.275 MPa) (P<3.82 MPa) (P<9.8 MPa) (P<17.3 MPa)
 • Application: hotel, heater, small
industrial process
• Fuel: Oil, Gas
• Steam capacity up to 5 Ton/h
• Saturated temperature
• Design pressure up to 2.5 Bar
• Fully shop assembly

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 14

• Application: Auxiliary boiler, industrial
process
• Fuel: Oil and Gas only
• Steam Capacity up to 220 Ton/hr
• Design Pressure up to 110 Bar
• Design Temperature up to 500o C
• Mainly shop assembly, very minimum
site works
• Application: Steam turbine drive (turbine
propulsion) in the shipboard
• Multi Fuels: Oil, Gas and Solid
• Steam Capacity up to 70 Ton/hr
• Design Pressure up to 58 Bar
• Design Temperature up to 500o C
• Limited spaces, compact arrangement
• Dynamic behavior

16
Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

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18
kshirod124@[Link]
 HRSG in Vertical Design HRSG in Horizontal Design
LP : Lowpressure

HP:Higpressure

1. Direction of exhaust gas flow

1. Direction of exhaust gas flow CSXA400311en_.cdr
2. Direction of heat exchanger tubes centerline
2. Direction of heat exchanger tubes centerline 3. Position of heat exchanger tube fins (if any)
3. Position of heat exchanger tube fins
Bypass Stack

Stack
LP Super-heated
Steam
IP Super-heated HP FWP IP FWP
IP HP
Steam
OTC OTC
Deaerator
HP Super-heated Steam
Kshirod Mohan Bose +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
• Application: Industrial process, Steam turbine drive (< 50
MW)
• Multi Fuels: Oil, Gas and Solid
• Steam Capacity up to 200 Ton/hr
• Design Pressure up to 120 Bar
• Design Temperature up to 500o C
• Site assembly
• Consideration of Industrial Boiler:
• Multi-fuel Burning capability
• Waste Fuel Utilization (biomass, waste acid, sludge, etc.)
• Cogeneration Potential to maximize heat from their fuel

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

kshirod124@[Link] 21
 • Application: Electric Utility
(more than 50 MWe)
• Main Fuel: Coal
• Steam Capacity up to 1,850
Ton/hr (600 MW)
• Design Pressure up to 173 Bar
• Design Temperature up to 550o
C
• Site assembly

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 22

 Drum
Final Super Heater
Down comer
Secondary Super Heater
Primary Super Heater
Water Wall Re- Heater

Burner Position
Economizer
Lower Header

Cross Sectional View of an

Utility Boiler © Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS
+8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
 To IPC From HPC
To HPC

Stack
Platen SH

Con. SH 1

Con. SH 2

RH 2
RH 1
Econ.
Regenerative Air
Radiant SH FW Heater
FD Fan

FUEL Air
ID Fan
Furnace Boiler of 210 MW Ghorashal Power Station
Sub- critical, Super High Pressure, Water Tube,
Balanced Draft with Condensing Turbine
© kshirod124@[Link] 24
• Application: Electric Utility
• Fuels: Pulverized Coal
• Steam Capacity up to 2,500 Ton/hr
(800 MW)
• Design Pressure up to 253 Bar
• Design Temperature up to 565o C
• Higher efficiency (no steam drum, no
blow-down system)
• Feed water quality is major concern
• Site assembly

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

kshirod124@[Link] 25
Supercritical Technology
Literature Review

• Contemporary supercritical steam

generators are sometimes referred to as
Benson boilers.
• In 1922, Mark Benson was granted a
patent for a boiler designed to convert
water into steam at high pressure.
What is
Supercritical
Pressure ?
• Critical point in water
vapour cycle is a
thermodynamic state
where there is no clear
distinction between
liquid and gaseous state
of water
• Water reaches to this
state at a critical
pressure above 22.1
MPa and 374 oC
 • Latent heat for evaporation is not required
• Internally Ribbed Tube construction
• Increases heat transfer rate
• Spiral tube water wall construction
Features of • Absence of nuclear boiling
• Maintenance free boiler
Super • Circulation is forced type
Critical • Absence of Dozing, Condensate Polishing Unit
Boiler (CPU) is applied for maintaining the water quality
• Less emission
• Higher efficiency
• Less fuel consumption
• No Blow down (Less water consumption)
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 31
 Furnace Wall Designs

Spiral Wall Configuration Vertical Wall Configuration

32
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
Tube Inside
Construction
Kshirod Mohan Bose +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
 Efficiency and CO2 Emission

Steam Steam CO2

Plant type Efficiency
Pressure Temperature Emissions
with power rating (%)
(kg/cm2) (C) (g/kW-hr)

Sub Critical
170 540 35 900
(Maximum Capacity 500 MW)

# Super Critical 247 565 40 830

Up to Crip limit

Ultra Super Critical 250 600 42 784

Advanced Ultra Super

300 700 45 740
Critical

35
 Unburnt &
Unaccounted Loss Stack Loss & Radiation Loss AIR ENERGY IN

Hot Air

Water Wall &

Super Heater

Air Heater
Re-Heater Economizer

STEAM Form HP To LP FEED WATER

ENERGY Turbine Turbine ENERGY IN 36
Heat Balance Diagram
Heat/ Energy Out Put &
Input Losses

Super heated and

Fuel (Chemical)
Re-heat Steam

Feed Water Stack/ Radiation

(Electrical) Loss

Unburnt &
Air (Electrical)
Unaccounted
Circulation of Water and Steam in Boiler
Natural Circulation • Forced Circulation

STEAM (Ms)
Ms

WATER Mw
(Mw)

COLD SIDE
Steam +
DOWNTAKE or
DOWNCOMER

Water

HOT SIDE
HOT SIDE
COLD SIDE

ORIFICE
CIRCULATING PUMP 38
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
 ⚫ Furnace
– radiation mode

Spaced SH
Radiant SH

Evap.
⚫ Radiant (Platen) Super-heater
– luminous radiation mode
Econ.
– non-luminous radiation mode
– convection mode
⚫ Convective (Spaced) Super-heater
– non-luminous radiation mode
– convection mode
⚫ Evaporator (Boiler Bank)
Furnace

– convection mode
⚫ Economizer
– convection mode
Boiler Drum
 • Boiler Drums can only be tested in Shop.
• The Drum pressure is higher than water-wall and
External View super-heater.
• Test pressure = 1.2/1.3 x Drum Working Pressure
Drum Internals
 Steam Separation Procedure
Steam Out for Super Heating

Water
Level
Gauge

Cyclone
Feed Water In Separator

Steam from Evaporator

Down Comer
Boiler Drum Internals

Cyclone Separators

Water Level
 Pressure Components (Mainly Water Circuit)

Economizer

Furnace and convection pass

Water Circuits, including drums and steam

separators and re-heater.

Attemparators

Connection Piping and Headers

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS
+8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 45
Economizer

• Used for Feed Water

Heating.
• For adding heat at higher
temperature
• Use waste Heat
• Increases Efficiency.

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

kshirod124@[Link] 46
Water Wall Construction
Tube and Tile Arrangement
(For Lower Pressure)
Tangential and Studded Tube
Membrane Wall (For Higher Pressure and Coal
Fired Boiler)
Membrane Wall at Shop
Water Wall
Construction
Example
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
53
kshirod124@[Link]
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
54
kshirod124@[Link]
Boiler Auxiliaries
Non- pressure Boiler
Components Balance of Plant
Equipment
(Fuel & Air System)
• Fuel preparation • Fans
Equipments • Feed Pumps
• Burners • Pollution Control
• Air Heaters Equipment
• Duct works and supports. • Controls
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 55
The function of Boiler Auxiliaries:

• Auxiliaries allow more heat to be produced.

• Minimizing heat loss is key to maximizing output.
• Efficiency is the key to generation.
• Combustion needs oxygen so airflow is key to heat production.
• Fuel type and size is key to combustion rate.
• Sizing of Auxiliaries is critical.
Main role of Boiler Auxiliaries:

Power Output MW Steam Flow Temperature and

Turbine Pressure

Boiler Capacity Auxiliaries Optimum

Under Capacity Over Capacity

< Desired MW Wasted Costs

Maximum Operation Wasted Energy
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
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kshirod124@[Link]
Air Heaters

Tubular Air Heater Re- Generative Air Heater 58

 SAFETY VALVES & RELIEF
VALVES

RELIEF VALVE

59
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
 WATER GAUGES and INDICATORS
CL

NWL
O

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kshirod124@[Link]
Draft System
• Natural Draft
• No fan used (not used for Power Plants)
• Forced Draft
• Fans are used to force air to Boiler
• Induced Draft
• Fans are used to suck air from Boiler, not commonly used)
• Balanced Draft
• Both Forced Draft & Induced Draft Fans are used
Natural Draft Boiler
 Forced Draft

AIR

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]

63
 Induced Draft

AIR

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]

64
 Balanced Draft

AIR

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]

65
Classification of Fans
• Radial Flow

• Axial Flow
Common Types of Fans
De-aerator
Feed Pump

• Multi- stage
centrifugal pump
• Driven by Motor or
Turbine
• May be configured as
1 100%, 2  100%, 3
 66%
 Type of
Maintenance:

Corrective /
Preventive
Break Down
Maintenance
Maintenance

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

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kshirod124@[Link]
 Manufacturer’s
Design Feature Duty Cycle Cost of Downtime
Recommendation

Diagnostics &
Type of Fuel
Expert System
Maintenance
Reliability Needed
Planning Replacement Parts
availability

Onside
Reserve
Maintenance Utilization Need Environment
Requirement
Capability
73
MAINTENANCE PLANNING

❖ For Maximization of Running

Hours
❖ To avoid forced outage
❖ To run reliably
❖ To minimize Maintenance time

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kshirod124@[Link]
Scheduled Maintenance

DAILY MAINTENANCE MONTHLY MAINTENANCE

 To ensure water level
 To ensure function ability of all safety
 To ensure water quality valves
 To ensure steam Temperature &
Pressure  To ensure the openings of drain valves
 To Ensure Flue gas Temperature
 To Ensure Oxygen and Carbon
dioxide quantity of water
 To Inspect for Water or air
leakage and maintenance if
Possible
 To Ensure quantity of blow down
 To ensure the working
environment clean.
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
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kshirod124@[Link]
QUARTERLY MAINTENANCE HALF YEARLY MAINTENANCE
 To inspect exterior of boiler  To inspect Steam or Water
 To inspect Internal Part of boiler leakage.
(mainly furnace) if shutdown is  To ensure correctness of
available. Pressure Gauge.
 To ensure correctness of level
meter
 To check feed water regulator
 To ensure the correctness of
pressure control devices like,
safety valve, Feed Pump &
Dozing Pumps.
 To ensure freeness of suspension
 To Review Boiler Log book,
Maintenance Registers & Water
quality log book.

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

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kshirod124@[Link]
Yearly Maintenance
To inspect & Repair Interior and Exterior of Boiler

 To inspect boiler tube inside for Scale, Corrosion, Grooving or wrack.

 To inspect & Tightening bolts
 To Inspect and Repair of all Manhole, Connection points and headers
for crack, corrosion or erosion
 Inspect water wall tube thickness through ultrasonic thickness gauge.
 To perform Hydraulic Test for Pressure parts.
 To ensure the correctness of pressure control devices like, safety valve,
Feed Pump & Dozing Pumps.
 To ensure freeness of suspension
 To Review Boiler Log book, Maintenance Registers & Water quality log
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
book. kshirod124@[Link]
77
Water Quality

PURPOSE OF
TREATMENT- DOZING
❑ Reduce Corrosion ❑ Hydrazine Dozing (N2H4) as
❑ Reduce Scale Oxygen Scavenger to remove
dissolve Oxygen form Boiler
❑ To reduce force trip & outage Feed Water. (Minimize
Corrosion)
❑ To increase efficiency of Boiler
❑ Ammonium Phosphate Dozing
❑ To reduce Deposition in for Maintaining PH through
Turbine & Super heater (Carry neutralization of acid
Over). (Normally PH of Boiler water is
9 to 11).

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 Boiler Tube
Failure & Maintenance
 8
0

Introduction

• Steam pours out of a tower at the AES

California power plant at Long Beach, after an
apparent explosion due to boiler's high-
pressure pipe ruptured
Introduction
• On November 6, 2007, a
Massachusetts power plant’s
steam-generating boiler
exploded
• Casualties : 3 men died
• Investigation report revealed
the explosion is caused by
extensive corrosion of boiler
tubes

81
Different Failure Mode
Failure Mode of Boiler Tubes according to EPRI
2%

24%
24%

9%
11%

6%
4%

20%

Long term Over heating Creep Short Term Overheating Thermal Fatigue
Mechanical Overload Corrosion Form of Corrosion Manufacturing Defects

82
 • Corrosion Fatigue
Leading • Fly Ash Erosion
• Under Deposit Mechanisms
mechanism • Hydrogen Damage and Acid Phosphate
Corrosion
83
of boiler tube • Long Term Overheating/Creep

failure by • Short Term Overheating

• Soot blower Erosion
EPRI • Fireside Corrosion (Water wall, Super
heater, Re heater)
Corrosion Fatigue
• Corrosion fatigue occurs by the combined
synergistic actions of cyclic loading and a
corrosive environment.
• It is a discontinuous process with crack
initiation and growth during transient
periods.
• The initiation sites are associated with
surface defects like pits or other
discontinuities.
• Wide cracks have irregular profiles and are
filled with iron oxides.
• Most frequently occurs in boilers that are in
"peaking" service, used discontinuously, or
otherwise operated cyclically.
• Rapid boiler start-up or shutdown can greatly
increase the susceptibility to corrosion
fatigue
84
Corrosion Fatigue
• Location
• Can occur in any location where cyclic stresses of sufficient
magnitude are operative
• Common locations include wall tubes, reheater, tubes,
superheater tubes, economizer tubes, deaerators, and the end
of the membrane on waterwall tubing.
• Also common at points of attachment or rigid constraint, such as
connections to inlet or outlet headers, tie bars, and buckstays.
• Also observed at grooves along the internal surfaces of boiler
tubes that have been only partly full of water, at points of
intermittent steam blanketing within generating tubes, at oxygen
pits in waterlines or feedwater lines, in welds at slag pockets or
points of incomplete fusion, in soot-blower lines where vibration
stresses are developed, and in blowdown lines.
85
Corrosion Fatigue
Critical factor
• Cyclic tensile stresses
• cyclically fluctuating internal pressure
• constrained thermal expansion and
contraction.
• Environment → spontaneous oxidation
• pH level content
• dissolved-oxygen
Pitting Crack initiation

86
Corrosion Fatigue

principal cyclic stress is produced principal cyclic stress is a bending stress

by fluctuations in internal pressure produced by thermal
→ longitudinal cracks expansion and contraction of the tube
→ transverse crack

87
 Corrosion Fatigue

Microstructure features

88
Corrosion Fatigue Prevention
Controlling cyclic Controlling
Boiler redesign
tensile stresses environmental factors

Reducing or
Extending start-up and
eliminating cyclic Contouring of welds
shutdown times
operation of the boiler

Redesign of tube
attachments

89
Corrosion Fatigue

Brittle fracture due to

Corrosion + corrosion fatigue.
Thermal fatigue Secondary cracks is
observable
90
Fly Ash Erosion
• Fly-ash erosion is caused by particulate matter entrained in high-speed flue
gases striking metal surfaces
• Major accelerating factors are high gas velocity and large amounts of
abrasive components in the fly ash
• Common in boilers fired with overfeed stokers, which allow considerable
amounts of ash to enter the gas stream more readily
• Frequently occurs in economizer, superheater, reheater, and roof tubing
• Erosion is usually localized and frequently is restricted to regions such as
gaps between tube rows, banks, and duct walls
• Erosive metal loss increases as particle hardness, flow velocity, and ash
concentration increase

91
Fly Ash Erosion
• Frequently causes smoothly
polished surfaces.
• In other cases, irregular flow
marks and grooving are
produced by eddies around
slag encrustations, hangers,
brackets
• In extreme cases, thinning can
cause rupture.

92
Fly Ash Erosion
• Close inspection of the rupture
site often reveals thinning of the
external surface and no
overheating or corrosion
• Metallographic examination
may reveal microscopic plastic
deformation on thinned
surfaces

93
Under Deposit Mechanism
• Hydrogen damage
• Acid phosphate corrosion
• Both may be originated from deposits

94
Hydrogen Damage
• Direct result of electrochemical
corrosion reactions in which
hydrogen in the atomic form is
liberated
• Typically confined to internal
surfaces of water-carrying tubes
that are actively corroding
• Damage usually occurs in regions
of high heat flux; beneath heavy
deposits; in slanted or horizontal
tubes; and in heat-transfer regions
at or adjacent to backing rings at
welds, or near other devices that
disrupt flow

95
Hydrogen Damage
• Corrosion reactions → production H atoms
• Can occur in high-pH or a low-pH corrosion

Diffused into steel

In GB
Combined & formed
molecular H
• Accumulation of gases
• gas pressures → separation of the metal at
its GB →discontinuous intergranular
microcracks
96
Hydrogen Damage

Metal gouging
97
Hydrogen Damage
• It is difficult to visually identify hydrogen damage
prior to failure
• areas that have sustained either high-pH or low-pH
corrosion should be considered suspect.
• Ultrasonic thickness checks may disclose corroded
areas that should be considered suspect
• Boiler water contamination → condenser in leakage
Fresh water source → base substance → high pH corrosion
Seawater source → acidic substance → low pH corrosion

98
Hydrogen Damage
Prevention/elimination:
• Reduce the amount of available free sodium hydroxide
• Prevent inadvertent release of regeneration chemicals from makeup-water
demineralizers
• Prevent condenser in-leakage
• Prevent contamination of steam and condensate by process streams
• Prevent departure from nucleate boiling
• Prevent excessive water-side depositions
• Prevent waterline formation

99
Hydrogen Damage

Smooth, wavelike contours of

internal surface resulting from
caustic gouging

100
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
• On-going problem in phosphate-
treated boilers, especially as
pressures have increased
• The phosphates hideout in deposits
as temperatures increase
• The equilibrium chemistry for the
phosphates depends on the boiler
pressure and on whatever other
additives are present in the water, so
the treatment program needs to be
tailored to the individual boiler
conditions

101
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
• Phosphate corrosion results in localized attack under deposits,
producing gouges, grooves or depressions similar to those resulting
from caustic.
• Hideout is associated with increased pH in the boiler water, so high-
pH related corrosion may be reported even though the conditions
within the deposits may be acidic
• The attack occurs where a deposit or scale has already formed

102
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
• Sodium phosphate salts have retrograde solubility→
precipitate from solution as the temperature
increases
• The phosphate may react with the iron and magnetite
to form maricite, NaFePO4

Cause of corrosion dissolve iron or

magnetite under the
deposit

103
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
• In phosphate corrosion, there
is typically a porous deposit
with an inner layer of the
deposit which is white or
grey. This light-colored
compound may appear to be
crystalline and can be
identified via X-ray diffraction
as maricite
• Reddish streaks of hematite
may also be present in the
deposit. Iron phosphate may
also be found

104
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
Prevention:
• Maintain equilibrium phosphate control.
• Chemically clean the waterside to remove deposit build-ups.
• Reduce flow disruptions in tubes.
• Reduce burner impingement.

105
Long Term Overheating
• Long-term overheating is a
condition in which metal
temperatures exceed design
limits for days, weeks, months, or
longer.
• Rupture caused by normal
internal pressure becomes more
likely as temperatures rise.
• Long-term overheating depends
on temperature, length of time
at temperature, and tube
metallurgy.
106
Long Term Overheating
• Occur in water- and steam cooled tubes such as water walls, down
comers, screen tubes, superheaters, reheaters, and roof tubes →
rarely occurs in economizers and floor tubes
• 90% of failures caused by long-term overheating occur in super-
heaters, re-heaters, and wall tubes
• Failures usually occur in relatively broad areas and involve many
tubes

107
Long Term Overheating
• Rupture is preceded by bulging
• Many times bulging results because hot-face (hot-side) temperatures
are not uniform and local regions develop hot spots.
• Bulging usually causes spalling of deposits at the bulge site, which
reduces metal temperature locally
• Bulging increases surface area, allowing a greater fire-side heat input
locally
• Metal temperature is higher at bulges than in the surrounding metal
• Continued existence of bulges is sufficient to cause overheating even
if associated deposits are removed

108
Long Term Overheating

Bulges formed in the hot surface of Thick, thermally formed oxide

waterwall tube on internal and external
surfaces of a bulged wall
tube. Thinning of intact metal
at bulge is due to both plastic
deformation and thermal
oxidation.

109
Long Term Overheating
• One sign of long-term
overheating : thick, brittle,
dark oxide layer on both
internal and external
surfaces
• Excessive metal temperature
→ excessive thermal
oxidation

110
Long Term Overheating

• Thermally formed oxide layer

contains longitudinal fissures • Tube-wall thinning can result
and cracks. from cyclic thermal oxidation
• In other areas, patches of and spalling.
oxide may have exfoliated • The process can continue until
the entire wall is converted to
oxide, creating a hole. 111
Long Term Overheating
• One of form of long term
overheating : Creep rupture
(stress rupture)
• Usually produces a thick-
lipped rupture at the apex
of a bulge
• Small longitudinal fissure
• Fish mouth rupture

112
Long Term Overheating
Prevention:
• Removal of a chronic system defect
• Regular inspection on Headers, U-bends, long horizontal runs, and the
hottest areas
• Excess deposits should be removed by chemical or mechanical
cleaning
• Periodic checking on firing procedures, Btu value of fuels, and in-
service furnace temperatures near overheated areas
• Proper water treatment
• Proper boiler operation
113
Long Term Overheating

114
Short Term Overheating
• Occurs when the tube
temperature rises above design
limits for a brief period
• Instantly, metal temperatures are
at least 454 C and often exceed
730 C
• Depending on temperature, failure
may occur in a very short time
• Failure is usually caused by a boiler
operation upset
• Other cause : partial or total tube
pluggage and insufficient coolant
flow due to upset conditions
and/or excessive fire-side heat
input

115
Short Term Overheating
• Confined to steam- and water-cooled tubes including downcomers,
waterwalls, roofs, screens, superheaters, and reheaters
• Low water level → often occur near the top of waterwalls near steam
drums

116
Short Term Overheating
• Distinct identification by
microstructure examination
• Uniform tube expansion,
absence of significant internal
deposits, absence of large
amounts of thermally formed
magnetite, and violent rupture.
• Bulging, fish mouth

117
Short Term Overheating
Example of microstructure transformation
due to short term overheating

Sound area Damaged area

118
Short Term Overheating
• Rapid failure: bulging may be
absent and the rupture can be
violent, sometimes bending the
tube almost double and causing
secondary metal tearing
• Rupture edges may be blunt and
retain most of their original wall
thickness or gradually taper to
knifelike or chisellike edges
• Heavy internal deposits will not
be present
• No thick accumulations of
thermally deteriorated metal

119
Short Term Overheating
Prevention
• Upset elimination
• Inspection & cleaning → reduce tube plugging
• Monitoring drum water level, firing procedures, and blowdown and
start-up procedures

120
Short Term Overheating

121
Sootblower Erosion
• Damage occurs near or in the
direct path of soot-blower
discharge
• Superheater tubing is usually
attacked
• Common damage locations:
tubes along the path of
retractable soot blower, tubes
nearest wall entrances of
retractable blowers

122
Sootblower Erosion
• Common cause of erosion in
boilers is soot-blower attack
• Physical abrasion and
accelerated oxidation cause
metal loss
• Damage can be accelerated by
fly ash entrained in the high-
velocity jet stream directed
against the tube surface.
• Erosive thinning often leads to
tube rupture
• Soot-blower erosion is caused
by improper blower alignment
and improper operation
123
Sootblower Erosion
• Attacked surfaces are locally thinned
• Close visual observation of thinned
surfaces will often show very shallow
wavelike striations
• The striations will be aligned
perpendicularly to steam flow across
the surface
• Bulging will usually be absent in
internally pressurized tubes suffering
erosion.
• Rupture is usually longitudinal
• Rupture edges will be thin and ragged

124
Sootblower Erosion
Prevention:
• Proper soot-blower operation, alignment, and function
• Periodic inspection of nozzle position and alignment
• Elimination of moisture in blowing steam can be accomplished by
allowing adequate steam warm-up and providing for adequate
drainage of steam supply lines
• Metalizing, welding, and plasma spray techniques can increase wall
thickness in affected areas and thus prolong tube life

125
Fireside Corrosion
• Coal ash corrosion
• Waterwall fireside corrosion

126
Coal Ash Corrosion
• High-temperature, liquid-phase
corrosion phenomenon that
occurs on metals whose surface
temperatures are in the range of
566 C to 732 C
• Confined to super-heater and re-
heater sections of the boiler

127
Coal Ash Corrosion
• During coal combustion, minerals in the coal are exposed to high temperatures,
causing release of volatile alkali compounds and sulfur oxides.
• Coal-ash corrosion occurs when fly ash deposits on metal surfaces where
temperatures range from 566 to 7320C. With time, the volatile alkali compounds
and sulfur compounds condense on the fly ash and react with it to form complex
alkali sulfates such as K3Fe(SO4)3 and Na3Fe(SO4)3 at the metal/deposit interface.
• The molten slag fluxes the protective iron oxide covering of the tube, exposing
the metal beneath to accelerated oxidation.
• Reduction of wall thickness by this corrosion mechanism effectively increases
stresses through the thinned wall. These increased stresses, coupled with high
metal temperatures, may lead to final failure by stress rupture.

128
Coal Ash Corrosion
• Slag buildup on the tube wall and the associated metal loss
• Austenitic stainless steel tubes → a pockmarked surface
appearance.
• Low-alloy carbon steel tubes typically show a pair of flat zones
of metal loss that are located on both sides of the leading face
of the tube at orientations of 30 to 45°
• Corroded surfaces have a grooved or roughened appearance

129
Coal Ash Corrosion
• The highest corrosion rates are
generally found in tubes having
the highest steam temperatures,
e.g. the outlet tubes of radiant
superheater or reheater.
• Maximum rate of attack is in the
temperature range where molten
sulfates are soluble
• At higher temperatures, the
corrosion rate decreases rapidly
because of thermal
decomposition of the corrosives

130
Coal Ash Corrosion
• Associated with a sintered or
slag-type deposit consisting of
three distinct layers
• Outer layer : bulky porous fly
ash
• Middle layer : whitish, water-
soluble alkali sulfates
• Inner layer: glassy black iron
oxides and sulfides at the metal
surface Most severe metal loss
• Can occur with any bituminous
coal but is more probable with
coals containing more than 3,5
% S and 0.25% Cl

131
Coal Ash Corrosion
Prevention:
• Lower steam temperature
• Use a material with better resistance i.e., higher chromium, silicon, or
aluminum content
• Thickness surveys → the extent and severity of the attack.
• If corrosion is not severe, economic solutions may include periodic tube
replacement, specification of thicker tube walls, use of thermal spray
coatings, or weld overlay
• Periodic cleaning of drainable superheater and reheater sections to
prevent buildup of internal scale.
• Redesign of affected areas to reduce heat-transfer rates
132
Coal Ash Corrosion

133
Coal Ash Corrosion

134
Coal Ash Corrosion

135
Coal Ash Corrosion

136
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion
• May develop when incomplete fuel
combustion occurs, causing release
of volatile sulfur compounds,
forming pyrosulfates.
• Sodium and potassium pyrosulfates
(Na2S2O7 and K2S2O7) have
melting points of 427 or less, and
both have a high chemical activity.
• These molten slags may flux the
protective magnetite on tube
surfaces, causing accelerated metal
deterioration along the crown of
the tube
137
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion
• Insufficient oxygen in the burner zone → primary factor in
development of waterwall corrosion.
• Poor combustion conditions and steady or intermittent flame contact
with the furnace walls, combined with coals that are capable of
forming an ash with a low fusion temperature, produce a hot, fuel-
rich corrosion environment.

138
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion

• Frequently characterized by metal loss along the crown

of the tube and may extend uniformly across several
tubes in a particular location
• Corroded regions may be covered by abnormally thick
layers of iron oxide and iron sulfide corrosion products
139
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion
Prevention
• Proper combustion process
• Ultrasonic thickness surveys
• Minor damage → patch welding of affected areas
• Severe damage → installation of thicker tubes or of corrosion-
resistant alloy tubes, use of thermal spray coatings, cladding of tubes

140
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion

Perforation in a region of severe metal loss

Metal loss around a fin resulting

from exposure of a stainless steel-
clad tube to a molten sodium salt.

141
Other Failure Mode

Water formed & Steam

formed deposits

142
Other Failure Mode

Stress Corrosion Cracking

143
Other Failure Mode

Dew point corrosion

during idle period

144
Name of Place Type of Problem Remark/ Cause

Scale, Corrosion or Pitting Water Quality Problem

Water Wall Over Heating Operational/ Burner Problem

Drum Scale, Corrosion or Water Quality Problem

Block Water Quality Problem
Super Heater & Re-
heater Over Heating Operational/ Burner Problem

Economizer Leakage/ Corrosion/ Pitting Fatigue

Feed line Leakage/ Corrosion/ Pitting Fatigue
Metal Deposition Water Quality Problem
Steiner of Stop Valves

Headers Corrosion Fatigue

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 14
5
Boiler Tube Preventive Maintenance
• Inspection
• Non destructive evaluation
• Feed water & fuel quality
• Other part that may affect tube, e.g. blower position
• Feed water treatment
• Chemical/mechanical cleaning
• Often already included in boiler maintenance
• Reference
• Assessment result
• Maintenance history
• Manual book, design calculation, or reference book
• Best practices
• Third party recommendation
• Periodic time
• May vary, depends on the part and failure mode
• Planned © Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
146
kshirod124@[Link]
Boiler Tube Preventive Maintenance
• Inspection methods
• Visual check
• NDT technique:
• Ultrasonic (flaw & thickness)
• Bore scope inspection
• Eddy current
• PT/MT
• Lab examination
• Water quality
• Replica test (microstructure)

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147
kshirod124@[Link]
Six Most Common NDT
Methods
1. Visual Testing (VT)
2. Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
4. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
5. Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
6. Radiography Testing (RT)- X-ray

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148
kshirod124@[Link]
Visual Testing Equipments

Fig: Videoscope Fig: Advanced Videoscope Fig: Borescopes

Fig. Microscope Fig: Magnifying glass

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
149
kshirod124@[Link]
Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler

Surface Cleaning and apply cleaner Apply Dye

Two surface
cracks

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,

Apply Developer kshirod124@[Link] Findings 150
Magnetic Particle Testing in Super heater Pipe Welding

First the welding joint is magnetized by MPT equipment. Then finely

milled iron particles are applied to the magnetized weld joint.
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
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kshirod124@[Link]
Magnetic Particle Testing in Gas Pipe Welding
Iron particles make a
cluster at the welding
joint for magnetic
flux leakage because
of welding defects.

Cluster

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 Ultrasonic Testing

o This technique is used for the detection of

internal surface (particularly distant surface)
defects in sound conducting materials.
o In this method high frequency sound waves
are introduced into a material and they are
reflected back from surface and flaws.
o Reflected sound energy is displayed versus
time, and inspector can visualize a cross
section of the specimen showing the depth of
features.
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
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kshirod124@[Link]
 Eddy-current Test
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current
inspection. Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow patterns
of the eddy currents and weaken their strength. This change in
strength at the crack location can be detected.

Magnetic Field
From Test Coil

Magnetic Field
From
Eddy Currents

Crack
Eddy Currents

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kshirod124@[Link]
 Radiography Testing Process

Radioactive Source

Electrons
+ -

X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

X-ray film
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Top view of developed film 15

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link]
5
❑ Boiler feed water treatment & quality check
❑ Prevent deposit, hard particle, or other impurity that may cause damage the
tube Periodic
❑ Chemical/mechanical cleaning
❑ External & internal surface of tube
❑ Reduce deposits/scales
❑ Should be done efficiently & carefully → other failure mode may active such
as caustic corrosion, acid corrosion, etc.
❑ Other efforts:
❑ Review operation parameters
❑ Software supports
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 15
7
 ❑ General Strategies for Damaged Tubes:
❑ Pre-repair inspection
❑ Removal of the failed tube section
❑ Repair/Replacement of the failed tube
❑ Post-repair inspection and tests
❑ Future preventive/control actions

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 158

 Locations Actual wall thickness Course of Action
Furnace support Tubes Tubes equal to or Monitor thickness
Economizer stringer greater than 85% t
support Tubes Tubes less than 85% t Restore tube wall thickness
or replace tube
Economizer, Furnace Tubes equal to or Monitor thickness
Wall and other water greater than 85% t
cooled Tubes Tubes less than 85% t Restore tube wall thickness
or replace tube
Super-heater, Re heater Tubes equal to or Monitor thickness
and other steam cooled greater than 85% t
Tubes Tubes less than 85% t Restore tube wall thickness
or replace tube
© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 159
 ❖ Every utility should use a qualified welder
for all repairs.
❖ Use Inert-gas tungsten arc welding for
root passes
Specific ❖ Do not use backing rings for tubing in the
Repair water touched circuits.
❖ Some semi-automatic welding processes
Procedures have been used in limited applications.
❖ Slag removal is required prior to
performing maintenance work.
❖ Access is critical.

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 160

Some repair techniques and their application

Method Applicability
Tube section • The preferred repair method
replacement • Consists of replacing tube section with one of same material and dimensions.

Grind out and re-weld • Applicable for small defects such as pin-hole leaks.
• Vee-preparation and re-weld.
Pad welding • Should only be used in an emergency as repeat failures are nearly always
guaranteed. Should be replaced at next major outage.
• Involves mechanically closing the rupture to original contour, veeing a weld
groove and re-welding.

Window welding May be required if access all around the tube is limited. Should be used only as a
temporary measure with full replacement at next outage.

Boiler tube build-up For restoring thinned tubes to original thickness

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856,
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kshirod124@[Link]
Boiler Tube Corrective Action

Example of window
welding

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 162

 1 2 3
Check Tube Change Tube if the Weld all root
Thickness thickness reduces passes with Argon
Regularly/ to 80% of original Welding
Periodically thickness

© Kshirod Mohan Bose, XEN, GPS +8801711076856, kshirod124@[Link] 163

Operation of all Auxiliaries of
Steam Turbine and Generator
Desk
Control Desk
Starting Condition
• Cold Startup
• Metal temperature is 150oC or less
• Startup after long shutdown
• Semi Cold Startup
• Metal temperature is more than 200oC but less than 400oC
• Startup after short shutdown
• Hot Startup
• Metal temperature is more than 400oC
• Startup after just shutdown/ within a day.
Start up of Steam Turbine from Cold state
• Make sure that
• Circulating system of Condenser Cooling is ON
• All the cooling system functioning properly
• Rotor burring gear are in operation
• Enough demi water in tank
• Open all the drain valves of turbine side
• Start Vacuum system, maintain minimum vacuum pressure in condenser
according to manufacturer’s guideline
• Make sure all drain of feed line and periodical blow down valves of boiler
are closed
• Air vent and Super-heater drain valves should be kept opened
• Drum fill up with water
Starting Up the boiler
❖ Start ID Fan (if any)
❖ Start FD Fan
❖ Ensure Furnace Pressure (as per design) and air flow
❖ Chemical test of Air of boiler (ensure there is no CH4)
❖ Start Fire (according to Instruction manual)
❖ Close Super heater drain valves and air vents at 6 bar pressure
❖ Initially keep some steam to blow at atmosphere
❖ Operate temperature & pressure of steam according to Instruction manual

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kshirod124@[Link]
Preparation of turbine for Rolling
• Make the pipeline worm through maintaining minimum flow through drain valves
• If the condenser got sufficient vacuum, then open turbine bypass valves to
maintain minimum flow across boiler
• after opening of turbine bypass close all the turbine side drain
• Keep watching the temperature of steam at turbine side
• If the temperature is more than 50oC of the turbine metal temperature, then it is
possible to open the control valves of turbine
• The rotational speed steps are defined by manufacturer
• Observe the vibration, axial shift and rotor & stator expansion or relative
expansion
• It may be required to open the turbine casing heating system (if any)
Note: The initial pressure of steam is 30 bar and temperature is 300oC
❑Loading after synchronization of unit
❑ Air supply increase & Fuel Increase.
❑ Start burners accordingly as per instruction manual
❑ Load the boiler fully at Rated Temperature and Pressure.
❑ Normally Gas/ oil fired burner fuel is same but incase of coal
fired boiler 30% of rated load is achieved by liquid fuel then
fuel changed to heavy fuel.

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Operation & Maintenance at Running
Condition
• Keep the plant clean
• Inspect Boiler Drum Level.
• Inspect Fans, Air-heaters periodically.
• Ensure water quality (for Hardness, pH etc.)
• Keep dozing of Hydrazine and Ammonium Phosphate.
• Maintain Constant pressure & Temperature of steam.

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From DCS if you start-
• Basic 3 (three) way to go forward-
• Automatic Mode (Suggested Mode)
• Step by Step Mode (We can work on it)
• Operator guided Mode (Not advised, Self risk, may be some mistake can
cause damage of equipment)
Generator Desk
• In case of DCS Electrical Mimics may
• Generator Single line Diagram
• Generator Cooling and temperature spread
• Excitation and Synchronization system
• Synchronization will be automatic in Automatic Mode
• You can also command from DCS if Step by Step mode of OG mode, by switching in
Synchronization function group
• Single line diagram for HV switch yard, and Circuit Breakers (GCB or HVCB)
• Single line diagram for 6.6 kV MV Board
• Single line diagram for 0.4 kV LV Board
• Single line diagram for DC & UPS system
Generator Manual Desk
Measurement of HV and Synchroscope
MV & LV System
HV & Synchronization