UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY

TECHNICAL REPORT 21

The Inscriptions of Calaktnul

ROYAL MARRIAGE AT A MAYA CITY IN CAMPECHE, MEXICO

by
Joyce Marcus

Ann Arbor
1987
@ 1987 The regents of The University of Michigan
The l\foseum of Anthropology
All rights reserved

Printed in the
United States of America

ISBN 978-0-915703-15-9 (paper)

ISBN 978-1-949098-66-2 (ebook)
Frontispiece. A strangler fig tightens its grip on a monument at Calakmul.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1\1y thanks go, first of all, to \Villiam J. Folan for

inviting me to be the epigrapher on his Proyecto Calakmul, and for

making my photographic and sketching sessions at the site so

productive. In the field, Jacint.() May Hau and Patrick Folan helped

me rig up the generator and lights to carry out night photography of

the Calakmul monuments. Lynda Florey Folan aided me in

arranging everything else in Campeche, prior to and after my stay

at Calakmul.

Back in the United States, Ian Graham generously

supplied me with xerox copies of Eric von Euw's drawings of the

Calakmul inscriptions. Von Euw had completed pencil sketches of a

number of stelae; these provided an important check against my

own sketches of the same inscriptions, my day and night

v
photographs of the monuments, and the drawings and photographs

made by Morley and Denison during the 1930s. It is fortunate that

the photographs by Morley and Denison were taken when they

were, because some of the monuments which today are broken,

missing, or deteriorated were in far better condition in Morley's

time. In fact, we must return frequently to the work of 1\10rley and

Denison to clarify important details in the inscriptions, to work out

many of the Initial Series dates, and to ascertain the original

location of some monuments. Some of the stelae that were in situ

in the 1930s are now elsewhere; for example, Stela .51 is in the

Museo Nacional de Antropologi'a in Mexico City and Stela 9 is in a

Campeche museum. Other monuments apparently have been

removed illegally from Mexico -- Stela 53 is in the United States and

Stela 89 (minus the hieroglyphic text on the sides which were sawn

off by looters) is currently on exhibit in the Rautenstrauch Joest

Museum fur Volkerkunde in Cologne, West Germany. Still others

(such as Stelae 50 and 52) are totally missing.

I thank John Clark for traveling from Michigan to

Calakmul for a week of work in December, 1984, in order to

Vl
rephotograph from different angles some of the same monuments I

had previously recorded. Equally importantly, John was able to

photograph and sketch many nev\7 monuments that had been located

by Folan's Proyecto Calakmul mapping crew since my 1983 stay.

Charles Hastings and Kay Clahassey printed all the

photographs that are included in this preliminary report. The cover

design of a bound captive on a sculptured outcrop at Calakmul was

drafted by Kay Clahassey from an Eric von Euv.' drawing. All

other drawings and site plans were redrafted by John Klausmeyer.

At every turn Sally Horvath gave me advice on the preparation of

this report. Rachael Cohen and Jill Lopick helped me format my

manuscript on numerous occaSlOns. All their efforts are greatly

appreciated.

Vll
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

}\cknov"ledgments ................................................................................................. v
List of Figures ..................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... xiii
Foreword -- b.Y V{illiam J. Folan .......................................................................... X\'
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
Early Research in Campeche and at the Site of Calakmul.. .................................... 7
Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting ...................................................................... 13
l\1apping Strategies ........................................................... ,..................... 16
The Central Plaza .................................................................................... 22
The Southeast Group ............................................................................... 26
The \Vest Group ...................................................................................... 33
Sculptured Outcrop .......................... '" ..................................................... 37
The East Group ....................................................................................... 38
The Northeast Group ............................................................................... 38
Other Groups .......................................................................................... 40
Calakmul Monuments: Epigraphy and Iconography ............................................. 53
The l\-1edium ............................................................................................ 59
Patterns in the Calakmul Data ................................................................ 64
The Rulers of Calakmul. ...................................................................................... 67
Ruler 1 .................................................................................................... 68
Ruler 2 .................................................................................................... 71
Ruler 3 .................................................................................................... 79
Ruler 4 .................................................................................................... 82
Ruler 5 .................................................................................................... 84
Ruler 6 .................................................................................................... 85
Ruler 7 .................................................................................................... 87
Ruler 8 .................................................................................................... 92
Ruler 9 .................................................................................................... 93
Ruler 10 .................................................................................................. 94
The Temples and Associated Stelae That Comprise Plaza Groups ........................ 95

lX
Chronological Sequence of Stelae and Their Context.. ......................................... 109
The Calakmul Realm ......................................................................................... 113
Balakbal. ............................................................................................... 117
Naachtun .............................................................................................. 118
Uxul. ..................................................................................................... 120
Oxpemul. .............................................................................................. 122
La l\'1uneca (Xamantun) ......................................................................... 123
[Link] Mira .............................................................................................. 124
Maintaining the Divine Right to Rule ................................................................. 125
Royall\Iarital Pairs at Calakmul. ...................................................................... 135
The A.D. 623 Couple ............................................................................. 137
The A.D. 642-652 Couple ...................................................................... 139
The A.D. 662 Couple ............................................................................. 139
The A.D. 692 Couple ............................................................................. 140
The .J\.D. 702 Couple ............................................................................. 14.5
The A.D. 731 Couple ............................................................................. 146
Royal WOluen at Calakmul. ............................................................................... 149
Stela 28 ................................................................................................. 1.50
Stela 9 .................................................................................................. 157
Stela 88 ................................................................................................. 161
Stela 1. .................................................................................................. 165
Stela 23 ................................................................................................. 167
Stela .54 ................................................................................................. 170
Emblem Glyphs ........................................................ ~ ....................................... 171
A Research Design for Calakmul. ...................................................................... 179
Future Research at the Realm Level. ................................................................. 185
References Cited ............................................................................................... 189

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Frontispiece. A strangler fig tightens its grip on Calakmul monument.

1. Map of the Maya region, showing Calakmul in southern Campeche ............ 14
2. Em-irons of Calakmul including the Bajo de Calakmul.. .............................. 15
3. l\lap of "do"'nto\vn" Calakmul. .............................................................. 18-19
4. Maya sites in Guatemala, Belize, and Mexico ............................................. 21
5. Structure IVb, Calakmul. ........................................................................... 24
6. Structure II, Calakmul. .............................................................................. 28
7. Structure III. Calakmul. ............................................................................ 30
8. Stela 66, Calakmul. ................................................................................... 35
9. The Northeast Group, Calakmul.. .............................................................. 39
10. Hydraulic features that encircle "downw\vn" Calakmul.. ............................ 41
11. Sketch map of group 130 meters west of the Northeast Group ................... .42
12. l\lonument 105, Calakmul. ......................................................................... 43
13. Closeup of text on l\lonument 105, Calakmul.. ............................................ 44
14. Monument 108 and its associated altar, Calakmul.. .................................... 46
15. l\Ionument 109, Calakmul. ......................................................................... 47
16. l\lonument 110, Calakmul.. ........................................................................ 48
17. Ivlon umen t 111, Calakm ul. ......................................................................... 49
18. 1\lonument 112. Calakmul.. ........................................................................ 50
19. 1\Ionument 113, Calakmul. ......................................................................... 51
20. Comparison of day and night photos of Stela 29, Calakmul.. ....................... 55
21. Lintel 3, Piedras Neg-ras. Guatemala .......................................................... 61
22. Clauses giving names and titles of Ruler 1, Calakmul.. ............................... 69
23. Stelae 29 and 28 honor Calakmul Ruler 2 and his wife ............................... 73
24. Ruler 2 and his wife face each other on paired stelae .................................. 74
25. Two views of the right side of Stela 29 ....................................................... 76
26. Text relating events in the life of Calakmul Ruler 2 .................................... 77
27. Text giving name of Calakmul Ruler 3's wife ............................................. 80
28. Hieroglyphic passage from Stela 8, CalakmuL. ........................................... 86
29. Stela 89, Calakmul. ................................................................................... 88
30. Stela 61, Calakmul. ................................................................................... 89
31. Stela 51, Calakmul. ................................................................................... 90
32. Name clause of Ruler 7 given on Stela 51, Calakmul.. ................................ 91
33. Calakmul's Structure V was dedicated around A.D. 623 ............................. 98
34. Calakmul's Structure Vln was dedicated around A.D. 633 ......................... 99
35. Calakmul's Structure 1Vb was dedicated around A.D. 672 ........................ 100
36. Calakmul's Structures XVI, XV, XVIII, and IX were dedicated
between A.D. 672 and 682 ....................................................................... 101

Xl
37. Calakmul's Structures II and VI were dedicated around A.D. 702 ............ 102
38. Calakmul's Structure I was dedicated around A.D. 731.. .......................... 103
39. Calakmul's Structure XIV was dedicated
bet\veen A.D. 741 and 751. ...................................................................... 104
40. Calakmul"s Structure XIII \Vas dedicated around A.D. 771.. ..................... 105
41. Calakmul's Structure XVII was dedicated around A.D. 790 ..................... 106
42. Calakmul's Structure X was dedicated
bet\\'een A.D. 810 and 820 ....................................................................... 107
43. Calakmul's Late Classic realm ................................................................. 114
44. Lintel 25, Yaxchilan, I\Iexico .................................................................... 127
45. Lintel 24, Yaxchilan, I\lexico .................................................................... 128
46. Lintel 17, Yaxchilan. Mexico .................................................................... 129
47. Lintel 15, Yaxchibin, I\lexico .................................................................... 130
48. Royal couple depicted on Stelae 28 and 29 at Calakmul.. .......................... 138
49. Kimbell (Stela II) monument ................................................................... 142
50. Cleveland Museum of Art (Stela 1) monument.. ........................................ 143
51. Stela 28, Calakmul. ................................................................................. 151
52. Text on left side of Stela 28, Calakmul.. ................................................... 153
53. Night \~ie~" of left side of Stela 28, Calakmul. ............................ u 154
•.......•.•..

54. Left side of Stela 28, Calakmul.. .............................................................. 155

55. Right side of Stela 28, Calakmul.. ............................................................ 156
56. Lower register on the back of St€la 9, Calakmul.. ..................................... 15,3
57. Text in lower register on the back of Stela 9, Calakmul.. .......................... 159
58. Hieroglyphic band in woman's skirt
(back of St€la 9, Calakmul) ...................................................................... 162
59. Hieroglyphic band in woman's skirt
(back of Stela 9, Calakmul) ...................................................................... 163
60. Stela 88, Calakmul .................................................................................. 164
61. Stela I of the Cleveland Museum of Art. ................................................... 166
62. Stela 23, Calakmul. ................................................................................. 168
63. Hieroglyphic band in woman's skirt. (Stela 23, Calakmul) ........................ 169
64. Name and possible emblem glyph, Stela 51, Calakmul.. ............................ 175
65. Possible emblem glyphs ............................................................................ 176

Xli
 LIST OF TABLES

1. Long Count Dates Reported from Calakmul.. ......................................... 57 -58

2. Five-year Period Endings on Structure XV Stelae, Calakmul.. ............ : ....... 83
3. Association of Stelae, Dates, and Structures at Caiakmul.. ......................... 97
4. Linking Possible Reigns with Public Buildings at Calakmul.. .............. 110-111
5. l\lonuments at Calakmul's Dependencies .................................................. 117
6. Long Count Dates Report€d from Oxpemul.. ............................................. 123
7. Possible Royal Couples at Calakmul.. ....................................................... 136

Xlll
 FOREWORD

William J. Folan

Calakmul is a major Maya regional center in southeastern Campeche,

Mexico, some 35 kilometers from the border with Guatemala. It has been suggested (Folan

1985, 1987) that Calakmul and nearby EI 11irador, Guatemala, may once have been "twin

cities" separated by only 37 kilometers. Each of these grand centers may also have played

the role of regional capital for an emerging primitive state during the Late Preclassic, thus

representing a wellspring for this type of organization in the Maya Lowlands. Structure II

of Calakmul and the EI Tigre structure of EI Mirador represent two very similar public

buildings of virtually the same shape and dimensions, suggesting to me not only the shared

importance of these cities, but perhaps even their dedication to the same deity or deified

royal ancestor. Although it is not necessarily a topic in which Marcus and I are of one mind,

I believe in the distinct possibility that the subsequent fall of EI Mirador as a major power,
as well as the continued rise of Calakmul during the Classic, may have been due in part to

differential local climatic and hydraulic conditions experienced by the two centers. The final

dedication of Calakmul's Structure I -- with a base even larger than Structure IV of Tikal --

marks the continued development of Calakmul in the Late Classic.

Joyce Marcus has studied state formation since her student days as an

anthropologist. Her model of [Link] organization in the l\laya area and, specifically, In

the Calakmul Region (Marcus 1973, 1976; see also Flannery 1972) was one source which

helped inspire my research design for the Calakmul Project, formed to provide insights into

the hypothetical frontier bet,veen the Northern Peten and the RIO Bec, Chenes, and Puuc

Regions of the Peninsula of Yucatan, "'hile also seeking out additional information on the

1\1aya state. The Calakmul Project has also provided intensive efforts toward a better

understanding of Maya urban development through time.

An integral part of this project, independently developed by Marcus, is her

attempt to block out the urban development pattern of Calakmul's nucleus by means of its

associated hieroglyphic record. This record she divides into a sequence of rulers and of royal

marital couples, identifiable through single and multiple stelae which refer to male and

female members of the ranking elite and can be associated with specific public architecture.

These results reinforce the Calakmul Project's efforts to record and understand the area

from the regional level down through the state, urban, civic/ceremonial core, royal family,

and royal individual levels. All this is essential if we are going to extend our goals to the

XVl
very limits of the archaeological information available to us in the field. As an added

dimension of this work, it is the intention of the Calakmul Project to investigate the

beginnings. limits, and content of the Late Postdassic province of Cehache, and its possible

relationship with the northern and southern reaches of the Maya area.

In these days, when scholars like Sabloff (1987) and Sanders (1987) are

referring to [Link] such as Copan, Honduras, as "urban" or "possessing an urban core" --

eyen when such centers are considerably smaller than the likes of Calakmul and Coba,

Quintana Roo (Folan, Kintz, and Fletcher 1983) -- it seems time to cast aside outdated

models for a more realistic look at l\Iaya achievements. In broad terms, we need to reassess

state and urban status, as well as the effects that climatic change have made in the

development of Maya polities through time (Folan, Gunn, Eaton, and Patch 1983). Not to be

overlooked, ho·wever. are the finer stratigraphic possibilities offered by strategies such as

Marcus' plan for future excavations at Calakmul (this volume), aimed at dividing the 200- to

300-year periods we ha\'e been working with down, in some cases, to the life span of a single

historic figure.

xuu
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Flannery, Kent V.

1972 The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations. Annual Review of Ecology and

Systematics, Volume 3, pp. 399-426. Annual Reviews, Inc., Palo Alto,

California.

Folan, \Villiam J.

1985 Calakmul, Campeche. Su Centro Urbano, Estado, y Region en Relacion al

Concepto del Resto de la Gran I\lesoamerica. Informacic!n 9, pp. 161-185.

Universidad AutOnoma del Sudeste, Campeche, Mexico.

1987 El Proyecto Calakmul: Su Patron de Asentamiento y Sus Implicaciones para

la Arqueolog{a Maya. Segundo Coloquio Internacional de Alayistas, 17 al 22

de agosto, Campeche, Campeche, Mexico.

Folan, \Villiam J., Ellen R. Kintz, and Laraine A. Fletcher

1983 Coba: A Classic Maya Metropolis. Academic Press, New York.

XVlll
Folan, \Villiam J., LToel Gunn, Jack D. Eaton, and Robert \V. Patch

1983 Paleoclimatological Patterning in Southern 11esoamerica. Journal of Field

Archaeology, Volume 10, pp. 453-468.

Marcus, Joyce

1973 Territorial Organization of the Lowland Classic Maya. Science, Volume 180,

pp. 91 ]-916.

1976 [Link]:. and State in the [Link] J..Jaya Lowlands: An Epigraphic Approach to

Territorial Organization. Dumbarton Oaks, \Vashington, D.C.

Sabloff, Jeremy A.

1987 New Perspectives on the History of Ancient Maya Civilization. Nature,

Volume 326, Number 6110, pp. 242-243.

Sanders, William T.

1987 Una Reevaluacion del Colapso Maya: La Perspectiva desde Copan. Segundo

Coloquio Internacional de Mayistas, 17 al 22 de agosto, Campeche, Campeche,

Mexico.

XlX
 ... don't spend too much time on glyphs --
try to see your problem in broader perspective.

Letter to l\1arcus from Tatiana Proskouriakoff

(January 10, 1970)

INTRODUCTION

The last 30 years have seen the study of hieroglyphic

texts from a number of Classic Maya centers such as Piedras NegTas,

Yaxchilan, Tikal, Copan, Quirigua, and Palenque. Many of these

studies follow in the footsteps of Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1960, 1961a,

1961b, 1963, 1964, 1973) and Heinrich Berlin (1955, 1958, 1959,

1960a, 1960b, 1963, 1965, 1968a, 1968b, 1973, 1977, 1982), the first

two epigraphers to open the "door to Maya history". Scholars since

Berlin and Proskouriakoff have succeeded in identifying rulers' names,

the dates of their birth, their accession to the throne, their marriages,

and their deaths. Epigraphers also have established dynastic

sequences and identified site or place names. Most hieroglyphic studies

1
2 Inscriptions of Culakmul

that were carried out in the 1960s and early 1970s aimed at

reconstructing the chronology of events and the sequence of rulers at

individual sites. This "site-specific" focus is still with us, and continues

to be an important component in our understanding of the history and

development of individual Maya sites.

In the 1970s a second focus. that of establishing

regional site hierarchies and documenting site interactions. was just

beginning (e.g. Marcus 1973, 1974a, 1976b: Adams 1977; Adams and

Jones 1981). In this second approach,' hieroglyphic inscriptions were

employed not so much to reconstruct the events in the life of a

particular ruler at one site, as to link individual sites to others with

which they interacted. One of the specific goals of such analyses was

to understand the nature of Maya territorial organization. During this

same period, questions regarding the political evolution of the Maya

state were addressed using hieroglyphic texts as a source of primary

data. Site interactions in the form of marriage and military alliances,

raiding or conquests, elite gift-giving, boat trips by rulers, and

attendance at funerals of royalty were documented in the inscriptions.

So were changes in regional hierarchies, such as lower-order sites

which eventually moved up in the regional hierarchy, and sites that

seem to have gained their independence from a center that formerly

 I ntrod !letia n 3

subjugated them. Such interaction among sites now constitutes an

important focus of hieroglyphic studies, and of Maya archaeology in

general.

Nearly all the Late Classic Maya centers that have

been singled out for long-tf~rm excayation have been sites with a large

number of hieroglyphic monuments. Ironically, however, the Maya site

v,:hich may have the single greatest number of stone monuments --

Calakmul -- had not been subjected to nearly as much study until the

recent work of \Villiam J. Folan and other members of his project

(Folan and rvIay Hau 1984; Fletcher, ]\lay Hau. Folan, and Folan

1987). Much more extensive work had been carried out at other

primary centers, such as Tikal (Shook 1960; Shook, \V. R. Coe,

Broman, and Satterthwaite 1958: Carr and Hazard 1961; W. R. Cae

1962, 1965a, 1965b, and 1967; Haviland 1967, 1970, 1977, and

1981; Pules ton 1974; Puleston and Callender 1967; Fry and Cox

1974); Palenque (Ruz Lhuillier 1952a, 1952b, 1954, 1955, 1958a,

1958b, 1958c. 1958d, 1962, and 1977; Rands and Rands 1959; Acosta

1977); and Copan (Gordon 1896; Long-year 1952; Willey and

Leventhal 1979; Leventhal 1979; Willey, Leventhal, and Fash 1978;

Baudez 1978a, 1978b, 1979a, and 1979b).

4 I nscriptions of Calakmul

Notwithstanding the fact that no long-term excavation

or mapping had been undertaken at Calakmul, it is still surprising that

its numerous stone monuments were not the object of more extensive

study. There appear to be at least two reasons for this. One is that

many of the stelae are in very poor condition, discouraging epigraphers

from trying to tease out data from the \veathered hieroglyphic texts.

The damage from rainwater, lichens, moss, vines, and roots has been

such that only Morley, in his zeal to record all Maya dates, was not

discouraged. The effects of the natural elements are even more

noteworthy at Calakmul than most places because (as 1\lorley and

Denison noted) the stelae are made from a rather poor quality, porous

limestone which characterizes some of Calakmul's dependencies as

'.vell. A second reason sometimes given for the lack of study of the

Calakmul inscriptions is the relatiw inaccessibility of the site.

However, it seems likely this inaccessibility would not have discouraged

epigraphers were the monuments in better condition.

Even though Calakmul's monuments have suffered

considerable weathering during their 1100 - 1.500 years, there is still a

great deal that can be learned from them, especially if we employ a

contextual approach. Such an approach is particularly appropriate at

Calakmul [Link] there are such clear patterns in the way the Maya
 I ntrodllction 5

placed the monuments. Such patterning m placement, context, and

associations was preserved for Lundell, Morley, Bolles, and Denison to

recover in the early 1930s.

Like the elite at many other l\laya centers, the rulers of

Calakmul maintained their dynastic and genealogical records on stelae

that were displayed in particular locations: in the case of Calakmul,

these dynastic records were placed in association with individual

temples in particular plaza groups. The association of a particular

ruler's monuments with particular temples is an important element in

the contextual approach. Clear patterning is revealed in these

associations. Lines of dated monuments were set up in front of

different temples m plaza groups. Each ruler's dated stelae recorded

his personal history and the events that occurred during his reign. The

dedication of each ruler's dated monuments also appears to date the

dedication, enlargement, or renovation of at least one structure during

his reign, Thus, it appears that nearly every Calakmul ruler is

associated not only with a set of stelae, but also 'with at least one

temple completed during his reign. The results of our contextual

analysis will be discussed at length below.

6 Inscriptions of Calakmul

The most significant circumstance that allows us to

document the associations between lines of dated monuments and

particular structures is the fact that there was very little prehispanic

relocation of stelae. Unlike the Maya at other sites (such as Tikal),

those at Calakmul rarely reset, damaged, or buried the monuments of

earlier rulers. Attempting to explain such differences between sites --

continued public display of earlier rulers' monuments versus intentional

destruction, burying, or resetting -- could prove to be a fruitful line of

investigation. As we will see, this preservation of associations and

contexts at Calakmul aids us immeasurably m the kinds of analyses

we will do later on.

Finally, we are still able to document this patterning

because Calakmul's relative inaccessibility had kept many looters (as

well as tourists) from visiting the site. This means that most of the

stelae remain in the same places they occupied when Lundell, Morley,

Bolles, and Denison first recorded their locations in the 1930s, although

there are a few recent exceptions such as those indicated above.

 EARLY RESEARCH IN CAMPECHE AND AT
THE SITE OF CALAKMUL

On December 29, 1931 Cyrus Lundell, while working

for a chicle company in southern Campeche, Mexico, discovered a site

which he named ca (two), lak (adjacent), mul (artificial mound), or

"Place of Two Adjacent 11ounds" (Lundell 1933: 152). Lundell drafted

a map showing the locations of structures and stelae in their plaza

groups, and took a set of photographs; he passed these along to James

C. Brydon, who vwrked for the same company. Shortly thereafter,

Brydon showed the material to Dr. John C. Merriam, President of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, v;hile both of them were aboard a

boat bound for New Orleans.

In March of 1932, Lundell traveled to Chichen Itza

where Sylvanus Morley was working. Lundell informed him of a

newly-discovered, very impressive site that included large numbers of

7
8 Inscriptions of Calakmul

carved stelae with legible dates. Morley, always excited about

recording calendric information from newly-discovered stelae, was

eager to visit Lundell's site; he therefore requested permission of the

Departamento de Monumentos Prehispanicos, 'which was granted by

Ignacio l\Iarquina. Thus in April, 1932 the first expedition tD

Calakmul set out. It was led by Morley, accompanied by Karl Ruppert

(archaeologist), John S. Bolles (architect and surveyor), Gustav

Stromsvik (engineer), and Mrs. Morley (in charge of the camp

"commissary").

Morley describes the first afternoon at the site (April 9,

1932) as one devoted to setting up camp. Then he states:

the following day ,vas one of the most

remarkable in the writer's twenty-five years of
tropical exploration. \Vith the Lundell sketch map as
a guide, the institution party set out to explore the
area covered by the map. Lundell had enumerated
64 stelae, or sculptured hieroglyphic monuments, of
which the expedition was able to find all but two.
One of the missing two was the unsculptured
rectangular altar on the summit of the substructure
supporting the middle building of Structure D
[designated Structure IVb on Bolles' map; see
Figure 3 in this report], which Lundell had mistaken
for a sculptured stela; the other was not found in the
position indicated on his sketch map and it appears
probable that he must have confused it with some
other stela already accounted for elsewhere. This
reduced the total of stelae found by Lundell to 62.
 Early Research in Campeche 9

The Carnegie Institution's Calakmul

expedition, during the 15 days it was at the site,
discovered 41 additional stelae, bringing the total of
known stelae at this site to 103, the largest number
by 27 per cent, yet reported from any city of the
Maya civilization (Morley 1933:195).

Between 1932 and 1938, the Diyision of Historical

Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washington sent out four

expeditions to Calakmul, including the one described aboye by Morley.

On the first expedition, Morley had been the project epigrapher;

howe\"er, on the second, third, and fourth expeditions John H. Denison,

Jr. served in that capacity, with Morley generously supplying Denison

with a copy of all his notes on the Calakmul inscriptions.

Both Morley and Denison carried out exceptional work

on the stelae of Calakmul under very difficult circumstances. During

the first expedition Morley devoted himself to recording all the dates

and calendric information on the monuments; most of those dates have

been confirmed by more recent work (Marcus 1970, 1974a, 1983b). It

is unfortunate that l\lorley was less interested in recording the non-

calendric portions of the texts, since the damage and deterioration of

the last 50 years have made many of these data unrecoverable. This

loss is particularly felt nowadays, when we are able to extract so much

10 Inscriptions of Calakmul

more dynastic and genealogical information from the inscriptions than

was possible in Morley's day.

In addition to work at Calakmul proper, the staff of the

four Carnegie Institution expeditions studied many other sites in the

vicinity. In particular, J. P. O'Neill (in 1933) and F. P. Parris (in

1934) mapped several sites that were evidently part of Calakmul's

realm. l\lany of these were secondary centers, and all apparently

functioned as lower-order dependencies.

In addition to an important Calakmul site map prepared

by Bolles (and redrawn here as Figure 3), the four Campeche

expeditions drafted maps for many of the other ruins in southern

Campeche. For example, O'Neill mapped the ruins of La Muneca,

Nochebuena, RIO Bec (Group 1), Hormiguero, Alta Mira, and Naachtun;

Parris prepared maps for Oxpemul, Uaacbal, Becan, Channa, RIO Bec

(Group II - V), Balakbal, Pared de los Reyes, and Uxul. In 1938,

Shepherd added maps of Okolhuitz, Xpuhil, Culucbalom, Pechal, and

Peor es N ada.
 Early Research in Campeche 11

It would be difficult to overestimate the Carnegie

Institution of \Vashington's ,'.'ork m southern Campeche and

throughout the Maya area. In many regions their work, in both

quantity and quality, may never be surpassed.

 CALAKMUL: THE SITE AND ITS SETTING

Calakmul is a huge Maya cent€l' locared in the

southeastern part of the modern Mexican stare of Campeche --

specifically, in the southwestern part of the Yucatan Peninsula at ISO

05' North and 89 0 49' West (see Figure 1). Aerial photographs reveal

that the central part of Calakmul is encircled by an inrerconnected set

of canals, bajos, and acalches; the area thus enclosed is approximately

20 square kilometers. In a map published by Morley (1937, Volume V,

Part 2: Plare 179) a huge depression labeled "Bajo de Calakmul" is

shown immediarely to the west of the sire, trending from northwest to

southeast and occupying an area perhaps 35 x 20 kilometers (see

Figure 2).

13
14 Inscriptions of Calakmul

BAY OF CAMPECHE

I
I
I
PEN INS U LA J
J
CAM PECHE I l~'
: l
eCALAKMUL /
I ~.-. ..../

San r--._.-.-.-.-.-._._._._.-!
:,
0., .I
;. I
;c! •
~=:..;=;.:. eO' . _ . - co·Jr ,
T KA I
e~

CHIAPAS PETEN'
p::>

PACIFIC

~I
0 '5 50 75 '00
Kilometers I
0 CE A N

1. Map of the :Maya region, showing Calakmul in southern Campeche, Mexico.

 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 15

A Channa

A Bomba A Kohtun

A RIo Bee
A Uaaebal

A Oxpemul

A La Muneea

Multun A
Calakmul

Sasilha A Pared de A
los Reyes

• Los ~igreS
A Alta Mira

A Balakbal

AUxul ~xico
---------------------------------;---A~~_7--------
/ A Naaehtun Guatemala
F? 10 ~....-== EI Mirador A
,(l<?iXb~~' A La Muralla

o 10 20 30 40 50
km

2. Immediately to the west of Calakmul is a huge depression called the "Bajo de Calakmul", here
shown shaded with horizontal lines. Other ba,ios are designated in the same manner.
16 Inscriptions of Calakmul

As is characteristic of many other l\laya cities, the

monumental public buildings (temples, palaces, and platforms) occupy

the "downtown" or central sector of Calakmul; this sector covers

approximately 1. 75 square kilometers. Nearly all the stelae are to be

found within this downtown area, although important new stone

monuments (some carved in the round on small boulders and a few on

extremely large ones) have been found further out from the site's

center by Folan's project.

MAPPING STRATEGIES

Not surprisingly, the map prepared by Bolles in the

1930s and published by Ruppert and Denison in 1943 (Plate 61) does

not extend beyond the downtown sector which includes most of the

stelae and public buildings (see Figure 3 of this report). During the

1930s, all Carnegie Institution projects concentrated their efforts on

mapping the zone of public buildings and plaza groups at the heart of

Maya centers. However, while Lundell and Bolles sought to map the

downtown area, Folan's Proyecto Calakmul has additional goals: (1)

discovering the limits of Calakmul itself, (2) mapping the area between

Calakmul and its satellites or dependent communities, and (3) locating

 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 17

the limits of the Calakmul "realm" or polity. With those goals in mind,

since 1982 Folan's project has been mapping an area that no\\'

encompasses o\'er 30 square kilometers (Fletcher, l\Iay Hau, Folan,

and Folan 1987; Folan, personal communication 1986). In this larger

area, some 6250 structures have been located so far. The population

estimate for the entire city of Calakmul is 50.000 people (Fletcher,

May Hau, Folan, and Folan 1987).

The principal natural feature affecting the location and

distribution of structures at the site (and presumably a factor in its

having been selected for settlement in the first place) is the huge bajo

immediately to the west of the site center. There is reason to believe

that the earliest structures may be concentrated on the land nearest

the bajo (Figure 2). This huge depression was first described by

Lundell (1933:153) and later included on a map published by Morley

(1937, Volume V, Part 2: Plate 179). It is significant that hydraulic

features, including canals, also appear to have surrounded the

downtown area.
 G /
r

-
~
.-

8.
87•••::

XVIII~

~ I

t
Calakmul
\
Campeche
Latitude 18° 05' - Stelae
\
Longitude 89° 49' • Altars
"-
0 50 100 200

Meters

3. Map of "downtov.:n" Calakmul, drafted by J. S. Bolles in the 1930s, showing numbered stelae I (
I
 94
/
./
96
/'
,..
/
./
98 ,.../
"-
I)::::n

17.!~~
II~
\ -------

1/
I,

)..-,
------------~--~~~~~--~----~~----~--~--------------------------~
I
.e I (with, Arabic numerals), buildings (with Roman numerals), and unnumbered altars (redrafted from
Ruppert and Denison 1943: Plate 61).
20 Inscriptions of Calakmu.l

This central area (Figure 3) is on well-drained higher

ground (34 meters higher than the surrounding bajo. according to

Folan's recent topographic work); however, it is still within close

proximity to the bajos, aglladas, and hydraulic features. l\lany other

l\{aya sites -- including Tikal, Naachtun, Uaxactun, EI Mirador,

Xultun, Naranjo, Nakum, Kinal, Kohunlich, and Tzibanche -- are

located near to or at the edge of large baj0s (see Harrison 1977:491;

Adams, Brov.:n. and Culbert 1981: 1462). Many of these sites can be

seen in Figure 4.

DO'wntown Calakmul includes nearly 1000 buildings and

features of the type we have come to expect at Classic Maya sites,

particularly those that served as regional capitals or primary centers

for their districts: huge plazas, temples, stelae, ballcourts, palaces,

pyramids, and platforms. The map drafted by Bolles (Ruppert and

Denison 1943:' Plate 61) was used by Ruppert to divide this downtown

sector into four complexes of structures (called "groups") that surround

the Central Plaza; these were designated the Southeast Group, the

West Group, the East Group, and the Northeast Group. Let us now

look at these divisions in more detail.

 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 21

• Edzna
6. Dzibilnocac

km
o 25 50 75 100

.-
6. Becan
Rita
.Oxpemul

.Calakmul

Alta Mira.
Uxul • [Link]
• Naachtun
EI Mirador.

Uaxactun

Tikal.
Piedras Negras

• Ucanal
• Tzimln Kax

.Ixkun

Lubaant~n •

• Pusilha

4. l\Iaya sites in the Department of Peten, Guatemala; Belize; and Campeche, Mexico.
22 Inscriptions of Calakmul

THE CENTRAL PLAZA

Moving clockwise from the north, the Central Plaza is

delimited by Structures VII, VIII, IV, V, and VI (see Figure 3). We

begin in the north with Structure VII, noting the arrangement of five

stelae in front of the structure in an orderly line (Stelae 6, 5, 4, 3, and

2); in the center of that line is a circular altar, placed in front of Stela

4. All the monuments appear to be plain. A small temple (circa 8.8 x

4.8 meters) was built atop Structure VII, a 24-meter high

substructure.

At the northeast corner of the plaza lies Structure VIII,

approximately six meters high and associated with only one stela

(Stela 1) and altar.

Moving to the east side of the plaza, we find Structure

IV. Atop its long platform are three separate structures labeled a, b,

and c; each appears to have a stairway on its west side. Associated

with the northernmost structure (a) were Stelae 7 and 8 (set up to the

southwest) and Stela 90 (on the slope south of the stairway). The

southernmost structure (c) was associated with Stelae 19, 20, and 21.

The central structure (b) is the most impressive of the three in both
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 23

SIze and in the number of associated stelae (which are arranged in

three rows). In the back row are three apparently plain stelae -- Stelae

10, 11, and 12; in the middle row are St€lae 9, 13, 15, 16, and 14;

and in the front row are St€lae 17 and 18. Still further out in the

plaza to the northwest are St€lae 83 and 84, with a circular altar set

near the latter.

The central structure just described (Structure IVb) is

apparently a two-room t€mple (see Figure 5) and is clearly associated

with the largest number of st€lae of any of the three structures on the

platform. When mapped by Ruppert and Bolles in the 1930s, the

inner and out€r room of this t€mple were filled '''lith 1 - 2 meters of

debris, mostly roof and upper wall fall.

24 Inscriptions of Calakmul

, /

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .J

.L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~

"'-------------------------------

,/
,

D
o
o 1 2 3 4 5
N .....
Meters

5. A two-room temple (Structure IV1» sits atop a centrally-located platform delimiting the east
side of the Central Plaza at Calakmul (redrafted from Ruppert and Denison 1943: Figure 15).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 25

At the south end of the Central Plaza lies Structure V.

On the south side of the structure at the base of an apparent stairway

is a round altar; to the east are Stelae 34, 33, and around the

southeast corner (tD the north) is Stela 32. To the west of the

centrally-located altar are Stelae 3.5 and 36, and around the southwest

corner (to the north) is Stela 37. Atop the southern part of Structure V

itself are two apparently plain stelae (Nos. 30 and 31). To the north of

the structure are two paired stelae (Stelae 28 and 29).

Northwest of Structure V lies Structure VI, ,,,hich

Ruppert (1943:20) compared to Structure VII in Group E at Uaxactun.

Associated with the east side of Structure VI are three stelae and an

altar. Stela 22 stands by itself near the base of the structure; near

the top of the building stand Stelae 23 and 24; and between the latter

two stelae is a small, circular plain altar. On the west side of

Structure VI are three more stelae (Stelae 25, 26, and 27), with a

centrally-placed plain, round altar set in front of Stela 26.

26 Inscriptions of Calakmul

THE SOUTHEAST GROUP

The Southeast Group includes Structures I, II, and III.

Structure I faces to the west (toward the southeast corner of Structure

II). On top of Structure 1's pyramidal base is a flat area measuring

approximately 12 x 14 meters which supports a four-meter-high

mound; Stela 89 'was set up on the west side of this mound. 'When I

photographed this stela in 1983, it had been cut into several fragments

by looters, and I was able tD locate only a few sections of the text that

once comprised the sides of the monument. Fortunately, the intact text

had been photographed first by Morley (1933:201) and later by

Ruppert and Denison (1943: Plate 53c).

On a terrace to the west side of Structure I were Stelae

51, 52, 53, 54, 55 (from north to south in the back row). In front of

Stela 53 appeared Stela 50, and to the northwest was a plain stela

(Stela 49). Still further to the west, but below the terrace, was Stela

48. The figure depicted on Stela 89 faced north, as did the figures on

Stelae 51, 53, 54, and 48. In contrast, the male figure on Stela 52

faced south in order to gaze at the individual depicted on Stela 54, who

was apparently his wife. The carving on Stela 55 is too weathered to

 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 27

reveal what direction the figure faced. (See Figure 3 for the locations

of all Structure I stelae).

Structure II is the largest and tallest at Calakmul, with

an approximate height of 50 meters (see Figure 6). [Structure I is the

second largest and tallest, also roughly 50 meters in height, but

appears somewhat taller since it is built on a higher promontory than

Structure II.] The Structure II pyramid faces north, with seven stelae

set up on this north face. Five stelae were set up at the base of the

pyramid (38. 39, and 40 in the front row, and 41 and 42 in the back

row). On two different terraces (or steps of a broad stairway?) are

Stela 43 (on a lower terrace, east end) and Stela 44 (on a higher

terrace, west end). This broad basal stairway (perhaps nearly seventy

meters in width) does not appear to have continued to the top of the

pyramid; rather, it seems to have narrowed into a stairway of less

than ten meters in width. This narrower stairway led to the top of the

pyramid, which measures approximately 60 x 70 meters and features

four structures. Three of the structures are lined up in the northern

portion, while a large pyramid rises behind them in the southern

portion. Two plain stelae (Stelae 47 and 92) were set up on the east

side of Structure II.

28 I nscriptions of Calakmul

6. View of Structure II, Calakmul (taken from the top of Structure I).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 29

To the northwest of Structure II stood Stela 45, which

was set up to the east of a small mound. Just to the north of this

small mound, Stela 46 was erected.

To the northeast of Structure II lies Structure III

(Morley 1933:202-203). This well-preserved structure, set atop a five-

meter-high platform, is small when compared to the massive volume of

the pyramidal substructures of Structures I and II. However, because

of its exceptional preservation, Structure III provides us with one of

our few Calakmul floor plans (see Figure 7).

Structure III is now a t"welve-room building with much

of its upper structure present. One can see vaulted rooms, capstones,

roof beams, and the kinds of architectural detail most often fallen and

destroyed. Its layout reveals a nearly bilaterally symmetrical plan

which is similar to "small elite palaces" at other Maya centers.

Structure Ill's only stairway is on the west side; the location of the

twelve rooms and stairway are given in Figure 7.

30 Inscriptions of Calakmul

o 1 2 3 4 5

Meters

7. Structure III, a twelve-room palace at Calakmul (redrafted from Ruppert and Denison 1943:
Figure 2).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 31

Room 1 (3.05 x 5.25 meters) has two walls still

standing on its north and east sides. There are four doorways allowing

entry intz> and exit from Room 1, making it one of the most accessible

rooms in the building.

Room 2 is long and narrow (approximately 1.30 x 5.30

met€rs). Its north wall exhibits nine "ventilators" or small "\',indow-like

openmgs; four are at floor level (Ventilators 1-4), one is near the

center of the wall (Ventilator 5), and four are near the top of the wall

(Ventilators 6-9) [see Ruppert and Denison 1943: Figure 6bJ.

Ventilator .5 (32 x 30 centimeters in size) is located 70 centimeters

above the floor. (To the west of this ventilator, Lundell scratched his

name into the plaster wall with the date 12-29-31, the day he

discovered Calakmul.) The east 'sail has two more ventilators, one at

floor level and the other two meters above the floor.

The doorway leading from Room 2 to Room 3 still had

most of its lintel intact when Lundell, Ruppert, and Denison visited the

site. However, even then one of its four wooden sections was missing.

Two cordholders (which probably allowed a door, such as a drapery

made of perishable materials, to be held in place or drawn aside) were

present on either side of the doorway in the south wall of Room 2

32 Inscriptions of Calakmul

(Ibid.: Figure 7). Room 3 communicates with Rooms 1, 2, and 4; the

capstone and vault are largely intact.

The north, west, and south walls of Room 4 have

partially collapsed. Room 4 has two doorways, one with access to

Room 1, and the other to Room 3. Room 5 also has two doorways,

thereby communicating with Rooms 3 and 6. Room 6, in turn, has four

doorways, giving access to Rooms 5, 7, 8, and the central patio to the

west. The doorway leading into the patio could be sealed off by some

drapery of perishable material hung and held in place by cords

attached to either side.

Room 7 is one of the most inaccessible in the palace;

the only entrance into the room is through Room 6. As for Room 8, its

walls have nearly collapsed. In contrast, Room 9 is still in good

condition. The stone vault of the room rises over t\vo meters, and the

capstones have a span of 27 centimeters and are on the same level as

those in Room 10 (Ibid.: Figure 11). Room 9 has two doorways,

communicating with Rooms 10 and 12.

Room 10 has three doorways, communicating with

Rooms 8, 9, and 11. Three of the four wooden beams that form the

lintel still remain in the doorway leading to Room 11 (Ibid.: Figure 13).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 33

Sockets that were made In the jambs to either side of the doorway

suggest that a pole may have been inserted there for the purpose of

holding a curtain to create privacy for the occupants of the room.

Room 11 has only one door"way, giving access to Room

10 (Ibid.: Figure 14); Room 12 is in poor condition, but appears to

have had dimensions similar to those of Room 1. What became the

central patio was originally a room whose vaulted ceiling had collapsed,

evidently sometime during the use of the structure; apparently the

walls were then leveled ofT to create a raised central patio.

THE WEST GROUP

The \Vest Group is divided into a number of courts and

patios. In the eastern sector of the West Group are two large courts,

designated North Court and Southeast Court; separating these two

courts is Structure X (see Figure 3). On the north side of Structure X

are three stelae (Nos. 63, 64, and 65).

Structure XI is a ballcourt within the North Court. At

the north end of the ballcourt is a stela fragment (Stela 66) that was

re-used in the facing of the west bench (see Figure 8).

34 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Structure XII is in the northeastern part of the North

Court. To the north of this structure is Stela 91, associated with a

small round altar. Structure XIII constitutes the northern limit of the

North Court. On a terrace on the south face of Structure Xln a stela

nearly 4.5 meters tall was erected (Stela 88). East of Structure XIII

three stelae (Nos. 57, 58, and 56) and one altar were placed.
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 35

8. Stela 66, found in the west bench of the ball court (Structure Xl), is the lower portion of a
monument that includes only the legs of a figure.
36 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Structure XIV defines the east side of the North Court,

while Structure XV (southeast of Structure X) defines the east side of

the Southeast Court. On the west side of Structure XIV three stone

monuments were set up: a plain round altar, Stela 61, and Stela 62.

On the east side of Structure XIV, Stelae 59 and 60 were erected. To

the ",,'est of Structure XV five stelae were erected: Stelae 75, 76, 77,

78, and 79.

Structure XVI lies on the , ..'est side of the Southeast

Court. Set up in front of Structure XVI were Stelae 74, 73, 72 (with

an associated round altar), 71, and 70. Structure XVII is [Link] on

the south side of the Southeast Court. Only one stela (Stela 80) was

set up in front of its stairway (on the north side of the structure). In

addition, two plain stelae (Nos. 81 and 82) were set up to the

southwest of Structure XVII.

Lying to the southeast of Structure XVII is Structure

XVIII: on its north side are Stelae 85, 86, and 87.
 Calahmul: The Site and Its Setting 37

SCULPTURED OUTCROP

West of the ballcourt (Structure XI) and north of

Structure XVI (and Stelae 67, 68, and 69), one of Bolles' workmen

found a bedrock sculpture of seven capti\'es with their arms bound

behind their back. Shovm on the cover of this report is one of these

nude figures with his arms tied back with rope (redrawn from Eric von

Euw's original sketch'!. Associated with one of the other nude captives

is a short text of three eroded hieroglyphs that may give the name of

the captive. Today the exposed area of carved bedrock measures

approximately 5 by 5.5 meters. Morley (1933:204) gave the

dimensions as "17 feet by 21 feet" and Denison (1943:122) gave them

as 5.18 by 6.39 meters. A similar sculpture which includes two life-

size bound captives was found on a rectangular outcrop of limestone

along the course of the Maler causeway at Tikal (W. R. Cae 1967:84).

No doubt many other bedrock sculptures remain to be uncovered at

other primary centers.

38 Inscriptions of Calakmlll

THE EAST GROUP

The East Group lies directly east of the Central Plaza

and appears to include no stelae. This area seems to have been a

complex of palaces and other elite residences that delimit interior patios

and courts. Future excavations in this area could provide us with

important data on elite residences, thereby allowing us to compare

Calakmul elite to those living at Tikal and other centers.

THE NORTHEAST GROUP

The Northeast Group is located approximately 900

meters to the northeast of Structure II (see Figure 9). Nine stelae and

a plain altar were located here. On the east side of the plaza is a large

pyramidal structure; set up in front of it are Stelae 99, 98, 97, 96, a

plain altar, and Stela 95. On the north side of the same plaza is

another line of stelae (Nos. 103, 102, 101, and 100).

 Calahmul: The Site and Its Setting 39

9. The Northeast Group, set atop a promontory approximately 900 meters north of Structure II.
This group includes five buildings, two of \.vhich are associated with rows of stelae. Associated
with the eastern building are Stelae 9.5·99; associated with the northeast building are Stelae 100-
103 (redrafted from Ruppert and Denison 1943: Plate 61).
40 Inscriptions of Calakmul

OTHER GROUPS

Monuments 104, 105, 106, and 107 were found in a

plaza group 130 meters west of the Northeast Group (see Figures 10

and 11). Centrally placed atop this plaza group's northernmost

structure was Monument 104; set up in front of the same structure

were Monuments 106 and 105 (for the latter, see Figures 12 and 13).

Further to the south was Monument 107, with an associated altar (see

Figure 11).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 41

Medium Forest

Low Forest

canal
•
#112,113

• # 104-
#110 .107

~AgUadaS
Acalche
"Downtown"
Acalche

• Structure I
# 111

Acalche

Canal

Acalche
Acalche

Approximate Scale
I I I
o 1 2 3 4 Km

10. While most of the Calakmul stelae were found in the "downtown" sector of the site. other
stone monuments were discovered outside that area. Note that the downtown area is encircled by
concentric rings of canals and associated hydraulic \\lorks (redrafted from a 1984 sketch map
prepared by Jacinto I\.lay Hau and \Yilliam J. Folan).
42 Inscriptions of Calakmul

D <I
-------
-------

r--- --- ...I

I
I
I
I
I
I I
1106 1105

1107
• Altar
-------------------------
--- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - --
------------------------ -----~~

11. Sketch map of a plaza group approximately 130 meters west of the Northeast Group, showing
locations of Stelae 104; 105; 106; and 107, with its associated altar (redrafted from map prepared
by John Clark).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 43

12. :\lonument :i05, located ill a plaza group approxi:nately 130 lneters v,est of the KOl'theasi..
Group.
44 I nscriptions of Calakmul

13. Closeup of t€xt on l\lonument 105.

 Calakmlll: The Site and Its Setting 45

l\lonuments 108 and 109 (Figures 14 and 1.5) were

found on a small rectangular structure located approximately three

kilometers to the north of the center of the site. lVlonument 108

(Figure 14) was associated with a small, round stone altar. Other

plain stelae were located in mound groups near Monuments 108 and

109, but were not assigned numbers. Had all plain stelae and any

plain altars been numbered, we would conservatively be able to assign

140 numbers to stone monuments at Calakmul.

Monuments 110 and III (Figures 16 and 17) were

originally called "monos" by the Calakmul workmen; unlike stelae,

they are boulder sculptures carved in the round. Both monuments are

located on mounds, and resemble crude boulder sculptures known from

other Maya sites (e.g. Copan, see Gordon 1896; Tikal, see

Miscellaneous Sculpture 82). l\Ionument 110 is located to the north of

the Central Plaza, while Monument III is located to the south (see

Figure 10).
46 I nscriptions of Cala kmul

14. l\1:onument 108 and its associated altar were found on a small mound approximately three
kilOlneters north of "downto,,'n" Calakmul (see Figure 10).
 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 47

15. Monument 109, Calakmul.

48 I nscriptions of Calakmul

16. Monument 110, Calakmul.

 Calahmul: The Site and Its Setting 49

17. lVlonument 111, Calakmul.

50 I nscriptions of Calakmul

18. I\lonument 112 , Calakmul.

 Calakmul: The Site and Its Setting 51

19. Monument 113, Calakmul.

52 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Approximately three kilometers northwest of the site

center Monuments 112 and 113 were discovered (Figure 10). Both

were located \vithin the same plaza in a mound group. Like

1\lonuments 110 and 111, Monument 112 is a rather crude carving

(Figure 18).

I'vlonument 113 is a small sculpture (approximately one

meter in maximum dimension) featuring a deep u-shaped groove with

a shallower groove pecked into it (see Figure 19). Belo\v these grooves

are four small, shallow, circular depressions. The monument was

found in association with a well-worn basin metate.

 CALAKMUL MONUMENTS: EPIGRAPHY
AND ICONOGRAPHY

Calakmul, as we mentioned above, can lay claim tD the

largest corpus of stelae of any Classic JVlaya site. In 1931 Lundell

located 62 stelae; in 1932 Morley increased this number to 103; and

Folan's project during 1982-1986 increased this total to at least 113.

If we also include the miscellaneous plain stelae and altars that have

been found since Morley's and Denison's investigations, the number

exceeds 140.

Of the 103 stelae recorded originally by Morley, at least

79 had been carved, and many of these on three or four sides. Morley

was successful in working out fifty-one Initial Series dates at

Calakmul. Some of the more eroded stelae showed little more than

Initial Series dates that began lengthy, but largely illegible hieroglyphic

inscriptions; others in better condition revealed royal figures on the

53
54 Inscriptions of Calakmul

front face and less-weathered hieroglyphic texts on the sides. For some

of the weathered inscriptions, night photography often revealed details

that can not be seen in photographs taken in daylight (see Figure 20).

Calakmul stelae span the years A.D. 514 to 830, but

unfortunately the 316-year record is not an uninterrupted one. The

longest gap is early in the sequence: following the carving of a ruler

and hieroglyphic text on Stela 43 in A.D. 514, there was a 109-year

gap until the next monument was carved. There are at least two

possible explanations for this gap: either no monuments were carved

during this period, or else we are missing the intervening monuments

because they were destroyed or removed from view by later rulers.

This gap or hiatus is part of a widespread Peten phenomenon in which

there is not only a marked decrease in the number of stelae carved, but

also a noticeable drop in the number of public buildings constructed

(Willey 1974 and 1977).

 Calahmul Alonuments 55

20. Comparison of daylight (L. ) and night (R.) photography of the same Calakmul monument,
Stela 29. Each photo reveals different details.
56 Inscriptions of Calakmlll

The 31G-year span of Calakmul's stelae may eventually

be lengthened at both its early and late ends. It would not be

surprising if future work uncovers monuments predating the A.D. 514

stela; and at the late end, we already have a few candidates for stelae

that, on iconographic and stylistic grounds, may have been carved after

A.D. 830. A preliminary study of the iconography on some stelae that

have poorly preserved Initial Series dates (Marcus 1970, 1983b)

suggests that these monuments belong stylistically to early Cycle 10

(A.D. 830-850?).

By excerpting from :Morley·s (1933) and Denison's

(1943) published work, we are able to present the following table of

dates from Calakmul.

 Calakmul Monuments 57

Table 1. Long Count Dates Reported from Calakmul

Afonument Long Count Date Kind of Date

St. 43 9. 4. O. 0 .0 Initial Series

St. 28 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 29 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 1 9.10. O. ? 5 Initial Series
St. 9 [Link].19 Initial Series
St. 32 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 33 9.11. 5. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 35 9.11. 8.10. 0 Initial Series
(St. 3.5) 9.11.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 36 9.11.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St,88 9.11.??? Style Dating
(St. 9) 9.11.10. O. 0 Initial Series
CSt. 9) 9.12. O. O. 0 Period-Ending
St. 13 9.12. O. 0.0 Initial Series
St. 74 9.12. O. O.O? Initial Series
St. 75 9.12. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 86 9.12. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 76 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 70 [Link].9 Initial Series
St. 77 9.12.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 93 9.12.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 94 9.12.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 79 9.13. O. O.O? Initial Series
St. 23 9.13.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 24 9.13.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 38 [Link].0? Initial Series
St. 40 9.13.10. o. 0 Initial Series
St. 41 9.13.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 71 9.14. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 72 9.14. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 73 9.14. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 8 9.14.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 4 9.14. ? ? ? Initial Series
St. 51 9.14.19. 5. 0 Initial Series
St. 52 9.15. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 53 9.15. O. O. 0 Period-Ending
58 Inscriptions of Calakmul

St. 54 [Link].0 Initial Series

St. 55 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 48 9.15. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 89 9.15. O. 0.14 Initial Series
St. 26 9.15. 5. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 25 9.15.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 27 9.15.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 59 9.15.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 60 9.15.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 62 9.16. O. O. 0 Period Ending
St. 57 [Link].0 Initial Series
St. 58 9.17. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 80 9.18. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 67 9.18.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 69 9.18.10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 15 [Link].0 Period-Ending
St. 16 9.19. O. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 64 9.19. O. O.O? Initial Series
St. 65 [Link].0? Style Dating
St. 39 9. ? ? ? ? Initial Series
St. 45 9.? 10. O. 0 Initial Series
St. 66 9.18. O. O.O? Style Dating
St. 17 10. O. O. O.O? Style Dating
St. 84 10. 3. ? ? ? Style Dating
St. 91 10. 3. O. O.O? Style Dating

While noting that the inhabitants of Calakmul had

marked the ends of successive five-year (hotunob), ten-year

(lahuntunob), and twenty-year (katunob) periods by dedicating dated

stelae, Morley was struck by the fact that some period endings --

particularly those of ten- and twenty-year periods -- were

commemorated by the erection of two, three, or four stelae. In one

case, at the end of the fifteenth katun ([Link].0), in A.D. 731, seven

monuments were carved and dedicated. Morley commented that "no

 Calakmul Monuments 59

other city ... displayed such consistent prodigality [sic] in the erection of

its period markers as did Calakmul" (J\lorley 1933:200). Given the

view prevalent in the 1930s that all stelae served as time-markers,

J\lorley's statement is understandable. However, given the more recent

genealogical and dynastic interpretations of Proskouriakoff, Berlin,

Kelley, and others, nowadays we would be more inclined to interpret

the simultaneous dedication of seven stelae in other ways (see section

entitled Rulers at Calakmul).

THE MEDIUM

Unquestionably, the stela is the dominant medium for

hieroglyphic inscriptions at Calakmul. This contrasts with the

situation at Palenque (and a few other sites) where there are many

inscriptions but very few stelae. At sites of the latter type, more

extensive use is made of lintels, wall panels, altars, stairways, boulder

sculptures, and sometimes "zoomorphs" for the display of hieroglyphic

inscriptions. Thus, it is clear that for some sites the stela was deemed

the appropriate medium for the display of texts, while at other sites

different media were preferred. As we will see b~low, the subject

matter of the inscriptions was one of the factors determining whether

60 Inscriptions of Calakmul

the stela (or some other medium) was selected as the form of display

for permanent records.

Stelae -- in contrast to most lintels or wall slabs -- are

often truly monumental pieces of stone sculpture, not infrequently

portraying the ruler as greater than lifesize or even more than twice

his actual height. Additionally, stelae are freestanding "outdoor" or

"public" displays often depicting a ruler on the front face and

occasionally his wife on the back. Often stelae are set up in lines at

the base of a public building. In contrast, lintels and wall slabs are

usually much smaller, requiring one to read the inscription from close

up. (The Y axchilan or Piedras Negras wall slabs or lintels would be

examples). Such wall slabs or lintels were not highly visible or

accessible, sometimes occurring in the rear walls or doorways of dark

rooms, unlike the more "public" stelae. Unlike stelae, lintels and wall

slabs often depict on a single surface scenes that involve two or more

individuals (for example, see the Piedras Negras sculpture in Figure

21). Stelae are often carved on three or four surfaces or sides, with

one individual depicted on the front and another on the back.

 Calakmul Monuments 61

21. Bat Jaguar of Yaxchilan holds an audience at Piedras Negras. (Lintel 3, Piedras Negras,
Guatemala; photo courtesy of and with the permission of the University Museum, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.)
62 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Thus we might appropriately ask ".:hy did the rulers of

sites such as Y axchilan place many of their dynastic records in the

dark interiors of structures, while the Calakmul rulers chose to display

their dynastic records on lines of stelae in front of temples? Why ,,,. ere

some sites' dynastic records more accessible to public view than those

of other [Link]? The answer may lie in the subj~ct matter.

Some of the subject matter of the Yaxchihin inscriptions

(for example, texts recorded on some risersltreads and lintels

incorporated into structures) differs from that on the stelae of sites

such as Calakmul.

Unlike some of the Yaxchilan lintels, which show royal

women performing rites associated with ancestor worship, such as

ritual bloodletting, the Calakmul stelae portray royal women in formal

poses (Marcus 1974b:92; 1976b: Chapter V). These stelae showing

royal Calakmul women are often set up next to those depicting their

husbands, such that each husband and wife can look at each other.

What is probably significant here is that the lintels found in the

secluded rooms of palaces and elite residences are more concerned with

rituals (such as the taking of prisoners, bloodletting, the invocation of

the spirit of an ancestor, and the apotheosis of deceased rulers; see

 Calakmul Monuments 63

Figures 44 - 47) which might have been performed out of public view.

Support for such a suggestion comes from a number of polychrome

vessels and the Bonampak murals which show the elite involved in

bloodletting rites that take place indoors. Often these bloodletting rites

are associated with the birth of an heir, marriage, or the death of a

ruler. Such scenes of "private" and indoor ritual acti,-ity appear to be

absent from stelae at Calakmul. Furthermore, the Piedras Negras and

Yaxchilan lintels often portray additional members of the royal family

engaged in ritual activit~-; in contrast, members of the royal family

other than wives seem to be missing from the Calakmul stelae.

Could this mean that texts on the stelae at Calakmul

were limited to a discussion of the more "public" activities of the ruler,

while the texts on lintels at sites such as Yaxchilan were concerned

with the more "private" rituals carried out indoors by members of the

ruling family? Did the content of the text dictate both the medium

employed, and the location where it would be displayed? Our answer

is a qualified "yes", in recognition of the fact that the pattern is not

,vithout exceptions.

At the very least, it would seem that the medium

utilized for texts at different Maya sites could provide clues to the
64 Inscriptions of Calakmul

nature of the subject matter. In addition, we have seen that the

location of the text (outdoor versus indoor; in front of a temple versus

the doorway of a palace room) and its visibility to the public are other

important clues.

PATTERNS IN THE CALAKMUL DATA

In the pages that follow we will discuss the [Link],

content, and provenience of the Calakmul monuments with the goal of

understanding the role of writing in the hands of the Maya ruler and

his administrative elite (l\larcus 1976a).

The Calakmul stelae portray greater than lifesize royal

men and women. Some individuals measure two or three meters in

height; these massive portrayals on freestanding multi-ton stones

create very powerful images, particularly when set up in bilaterally-

symmetrical lines in front of impressive temples and public buildings.

Significantly, the elite residences identified at Calakmul, and the

palaces that form part of the principal plaza groups (for example,

Structure Ill), do not have stelae set up in front of them. The close

relationship between temples and stelae at Calakmul seems to relate to

 Calakmul Monuments 65

the diyine right to rule, which will be the subject of a later section of

this preliminary report.

Of interest here and in future reports are the ways in

v,;hich the function and content of monuments at Calakmul are similar

to and different from those of other Maya sites. Were the lifespans of

Calakmul rulers longer than those of most citizens? \Vas the length of

rulers' reigns systematically different from site to site and might this

reflect different patterns of succession to the throne? \Yere

monuments at different sites set up after the ruler had acceded to the

throne, after his marriage, or after the birth of an heir? Many of these

questions have been answered partially as a result of detailed studies

at seyeral different sites. Each case study reveals the diversity and

distribution of specific practices, but it also increases our knowledge of

many similarities and general patterns shared by nearly all Maya

centers. In both respects, the data from Calakmul will be important,

enabling us to document still another case with its particular

characteristics, and revealing patterns seen elsewhere at other centers.

For example, at Calakmul there is evidence that at least two events --

marriage and accession to the throne -- served as catalysts for the

carving of paired monuments that honor royal couples. The topic of the

royal couple at Calakmul [and the evidence for post-nuptial accession to

66 Inscriptions of CaZakmul

the throne and post-nuptial dedication of stelae] will be discussed later

in this report and will be the subject of lengthier treatment in the next

report on the Calakmul inscriptions.

Patterning in the Calakmul hieroglyphic data can be

used to contribute information on at least two levels: intra-site and

inter-site. The intra-site level includes information about the individual

ruler and the royal couple, as well as dynastic data linking one reign to

another. This information permits us to document the rise and fall of

particular dynasties within a site. The inter-site level would comprise

data of two kinds: intra-regional and inter-regional. Information on the

intra-regional level reveals how each site is linked to its hinterland and

to the dependencies in its regional hierarchy. Inter-regional data show

ho'w sites in one region are linked to sites in a different region.

Ultimately, these data can be used to reconstruct the territorial

organization of the southern Maya lowlands. Since the latter topic was

discussed at length in earlier publications (Marcus 1973, 1974a,

1976b, 1983a), we will not do so here. However, in later sections of

this report we will see the many levels on which the Calakmul data

contribute to our understanding of the operation of the ancient Maya

state in southern Campeche.

 THE RULERS OF CALAKMUL

The Calakmul stelae can be divided into several series,

much as Proskouriakoff (1960) did with the Piedras Negras stelae, and

other epigraphers such as Berlin (1968a, 1977), Kelley (1962), and

Jones (1977) have accomplished at other sites. The purpose of dividing

the stelae into such series is to determine the number of rulers, the

lengths of reigns. and the presence of gaps between reigns.

In working with the Calakmul inscriptions, it is clear

that there is more than one way that the stelae can be divided into

series. One approach -- chronologically ordering all dated stelae and

integrating these stelae with other lines of evidence, such as

epigraphic, architectural, and contextual -- yields evidence for at least

ten Calakmul rulers. It also reveals at least one major gap in our

reconstructed sequence (between the reigns of Ruler 1 and 2). Some

alternative methods for ordering the Calakmul monuments (which I

67
68 Inscriptions of Calakmul

plan to treat at length in a future report) produce lists of more than ten

rulers. However, for the purposes of this preliminary report, I will

present only the former reconstruction, which yielded ten possible

Calakmul rulers.

RULER 1

The first ruler for whom we have data is named in

several clauses on Stela 43. a monument that was carved and

dedicated in A.D. 514 (see Figure 22). This stela stands over three

meters high and portrays Ruler 1 on the front in the style we associate

with the Early Classic period (Proskouriakoff 1950: Figure 40a).

 Rulers of Calakmul 69

22. Clauses that include the names and titles of Ruler 1 at Calakmul (from Stela 43, A9-BIO. D2-
C3, C7-C8, and D12-D13),
70 Inscriptions of Calakmul

This style is characterized by a somewhat cluttered or

crowded appearance in which there is little open space; there is use of

high, medium, and low relief, in addition to many details added by

incising. Some might describe this style as "baroque" or "ornate"

when contrasting it with the less cluttered appearance of Late Classic

stelae. \Vhile l\Iorley (1933:200-201) and Denison (1943:100) were

both reluctant to accept the A.D. 514 date as contemporaneous, it is

clear that the monument conforms stylistically to Early Classic

conventions (see Proskouriakoff 1950: 108-109), and fortunately the

Initial Series date of 9.4.0. O. 0 is clear. Indeed, the style of Stela 43 is

similar to other Early Classic monuments, such as Stela 31 from Tikal

and Stela 6 from Yaxha.

Ruler 1 is shown in profile VIew with an elaborate

headdress framing his face: he holds a ceremonial bar diagonally

positioned in his left arm, and associated with him are two bound

captive figures. This monument provides us with a lengthy text, also

quite characteristic of the Early Classic period. The text is recorded on

the sides of the monument, while the back is plain. Ruler 1 at

Calakmul would have been a contemporary of "Jaguar Paw Skull 1", a

ruler at Tikal (who may have ruled from A.D. 488 to 537).
 R ulcrs of Calakmul 71

, Stela 43 is one of the very few at Calakmul where one

could make a good case that the monument originally had been erected

in a different location and was later reset. Today, it stands on the first

terrace on the north side of Structure II (see Figure 3), in apparent

association with monuments that \'\'e1'e carved, dedicated, and erected

nearly 200 years later (circa A.D. 700).

On the left side of Stela 43 there is a very clear Initial

Series Introductory Glyph (at A1-B2), followed by a date of [Link].0

(A3-A4), the day 13 Ahau (B4), and the month 18 Yax (A5); this

corresponds to October 16, A.D. 514. A number of important clauses

(particularly those on the right side) provide the name and titles of this

important early ruler (see Figure 22). Associated with Ruler 1 are two

important dates, roughly a year and a half apart that refer to events

that took place approximately thirteen years before the stela was

dedicated.

RULER 2

Two carved monuments (Stelae 28 and 29) were set up

109 years after Stela 43 was dedicated. This pair of monuments was
72 Inscriptions of Calakmul

placed on the north side of Structure V; they are the only two stelae in

that location. (Structure V lies on the south side of what became the

Central Plaza; see Figure 3). The two stelae stand next to each other,

a man on one monument and a woman on the other, each facing the

other (see Figure 23). From these two monuments, we learn

something about Ruler 2 as well as his wife.

Ruler 2's wife is portrayed on Stela 28; her husband

appears on Stela 29 (see Figure 24). The monuments share a number

of important features. In addition to each fi,gure's placement on the

front face, each also is associated with a hieroglyphic panel that frames

the face, and 'with additional hieroglyphic texts on the sides of the

monument; the back of each stela is plain. In the L-shaped

hieroglyphic panels that frame the royal pair's faces are texts that

contain their names.

 Rulers of Calakmul 73

23. In A.D. 623, Stelae 29 (foreground ) and 28 (background ) were set up on the north side of
Structure V to honor Ruler 2 and his wife.
74 I nscriptions of Calakmul

24. The royal couple. Ruler 2 (at right, Stela 29) and his wife (at left, Stela 28), face each other.
 Rulers of Calakmul 75

Additionally, each figure stands atop a bound captive;

the captives, in turn, face each other. Thus, in design and la~vout these

two monuments were clearly carved as a mirror-image pair. Further

evidence of this pairing is the fact that both monuments record the

same dedicatory date of March 19, A. D. 623 [[Link].0 (2 Ahau 13

Pop)]; see Figures 25 and 26.

During the era in which Morley and Denison were

studying the Calakmul monuments, no I\Iaya archaeologist imagined

that women were among those individuals portrayed. Every

investigator of that period assumed that all figures were men -- either

priests ,vearing long skirts (since priests in Yucatan during the

Postclassic and early Colonial periods were known to have worn long

gowns or robes), or warriors wearing short skirts or loincloths. Thus,

it is not surprising that the description of the woman on Stela 28

includes a statement that she is a "figure facing right, clasping both

hands on his breast" (Denison 1943: 105). Prior to Proskouriakoffs

work (1960, 1961b, 1963, and 1964), women simply were not

identified in Classic Maya stelae.

76 I nscriptions of Calakmul

25. Two \' iews of the right side of Stela 29. showing the Initial Series Introductory Glyph followed
by the date [Link].0 2 Ahau 13 Pop, which corresponds to l\larch 19, A.D. 623 . The text goes
on to discuss Ruler 2. (Photo at left was taken during the day. while the one at right was taken at
night. )
 Rulers of Calakmul 77

26. Part of the t€xt discussing events in the life of Ruler 2 (left side, St€la 29).
78 Inscriptions of Calakmul

As we will see, this marital pair from A.D. 623 IS the

first of at least five royal couples depicted on Calakmul stelae. \Vhile

some royal women are commemorated at other primary J\Iaya centers,

one rarely encounters as many different women honored as is the case

at Calakmul, nor does one find so many women depicted as

protagonists on their own stelae. The more frequent pattern at

secondary and lo\-ver-order centers IS one in which one (rarely two)

royal IVlaya woman 'was commemorated on her own st€lae -- usually

because she was a \-"'oman from the royal dynasty at the regional

capital (who had "married down" and thereby elevated the status of

the dependent center's ruler). The more frequently-encountered

patt€rn at capitals is that royal wives are portrayed on the backs of

stelae with their husbands depict€d on the front. Although this latter

pattern is also known from Calakmul, it is clear that Calakmul was

different: it was a major regional capital which provided both members

of a royal marital pair with their own stela.

 Rulers of Calakmul 79

Stela 1, accompanied by an altar, \vas set up in front of

Structure VIII. This monument may have been dedicated to Ruler 2,

or to a ruler who intervened between Rulers 2 and 3.

RULER 3

Ruler 3 may be commemorated on more stelae than any

other Calakmul ruler. He appears to have been portrayed on Stelae 9,

13, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, and 37, dedicated between A.D. 657 and 672.

His wife is also known from her portrayal on the back of Stela 9, and

from the recording of her name in the main text itself (see Figure 27)

and in a single line of text incorporated as a band near the bottom of

her skirt (see Figures 58 and 59). She may also be portrayed on the

back of another monument.

80 Inscriptions of Calakmul

A B c

27. The wife of Ruler 3 is named in this glyph panel from the back of Stela 9. The Calendar
Round date of 11 Ahau 18 Chen (at BI-A2) corresponds to August 21, A.D. 662, the same date
that begins the text on the front of the same stela. On the front Ruler 3's name and portrait are
given (see Ruppert and Denison 1943: Plate 48a and 48b).
 Rulers of Calakmlll 81

To honor Ruler 3's reign, seven monuments were set up

in association with Structure V and still others in front of Structure

IVb, both localities in the Centl'al Plaza. The continued use of

Structure V as a place to set up dynastic records may indicate that

Rule!' 3 ·was a relative of Ruler 2, or that he wished to legitimize his

right to rule by linking himself to the latter's reign.

Near the base of the building on the south side of

Structure V, six stelae were set up, three flanking either side of a

centrally-placed altar. lVIo\-ing from west to east, we find Stela 37

(carved on all four sides); Stela 36 (carved on all four sides), with a

date of A.D. 662 ([Link].0?); and Stela 35 with dates of A.D. 660 -

662 ([Link].8 and [Link].0). To the east of the altar are Stela

34 (with no clear date); Stela 33, set up in A.D. 6.57 ([Link].0 ?); and

Stela 32 (carved on all four sides) with an apparent date of A.D. 672

(Initial Series date of [Link].0). Additionally, two apparently plain

monuments (Stelae 30 and 31) were placed atop Structure V.

Two significant characteristics of the group of stelae on

the south side of Structure V are (1) that the group was set up as an

evenly-spaced line to either side of a centrally-placed plain altar, and

(2) that the span of time covered by the dedicatory dates does not
82 Inscriptions of Calakmul

exceed 15 years (A.D. 657 - 672). This span apparently constitutes all

or part of Ruler 3's reign.

Monuments set up to honor Ruler 3 were also erected in

front of Structure IVb. Stela 9 was originally set up near the

northwest corner of Structure IVb (it has been moved to the Campeche

museum). This beautifully-carved stela records four dates

[Link].19 (3 Cauac 2 Ceh), [Link].0 (11 Ahau 18 Chen),

[Link].0 [13 Ahau 18 (?) Yax, although it looks more like 13 Ahau

16 Yax], and [Link].0 (10 Ahau 8 Yaxkin). Stela 13 was set up

near Stela 9 and displays a date of A.D. 672 (an Initial Series date of

[Link].0). Given the Initial Series dates recorded on Stelae 9 and 13,

it seems likely that Ruler 3 was honored by them as well.

RULER 4

Monuments erected to commemorate the reign of Ruler

4 include those associated with Structures XV, XVI, XVIII, and IX.

All these structures are located outside the Central Plaza, the area that

had been the focus of monuments honoring all previous rulers.

 Rulers of Calakmul 83

A line of five stelae honoring Ruler 4 was set up in front

of Structure xv. As we proceed from north to south along this

important line of monuments, we see that each commemorates the

ending of a five-year period and that all the hotunob are consecutive.

Table 2. Five-year period endings commemorat€d by Ruler 4 on stelae

erect€d in front of Structure XV.

Stela
Number Long Count Date Gregorian Date

75 9.12. O. 0.0 A. D. 672

76 9.12 ..5. O. 0 A. D. 677
77 9.12.10. O. 0 A. D. 682
78 9.12.15. O. 0 A. D. 687
79 9.13. O. O. 0 A. D. 692

The span of time represented by these stelae is

approximately twenty years (from [Link].0 to [Link].0) and within

that time span it appears that Ruler 4's reign falls.

Set up on the north side of Structure XVIII was Stela

86, with an Initial Series date of A.D. 672 ([Link].0), along with

Stelae 85 and 87, whose dedicatory dates are not clear. Another date

of A.D. 672 was recorded on Stela 74, and a date of A.D. 680

[[Link].9 ? (11 Muluc 17 Kankin)] appears on Stela 70. These last

84 Inscriptions of Calakmul

two stelae flank a line of monuments set up in front of Structure XVI.

While Stelae 70, 74, 85, and 86 appear to honor Ruler 4, all the

dedicatory dates recorded on the intervening stelae of this group [Nos.

73, 72 (with associated altar), and 71] mention the date A.D. 711

[[Link].0 (6 Ahau 13 :Muan)], and therefore presumably were erected

to honor Ruler 6. It appears that the original intent was that the

stelae honoring Ruler 4 faced each other across the Southeast Court in

the \-Vest Group.

Two additional stelae (Nos. 93 and 94) ...vith Initial

Series dates of A.D. 682 [[Link].0 (9 Ahau 18 Zotz)] were set up in

association with Structure IX and probably also relate to Ruler 4.

RULER 5

Ruler 5'smonuments began v,"ith the dedication of a

pair of stelae set up toward the east side atop Structure VI. Ruler 5 is

portrayed on Stela 24, while Stela 23 depicts his wife; both stelae bear

the Initial Series date of A.D. 702 [[Link].0 (7 Ahau 3 Cumhu)J. A

plain round altar was placed between this marital pair.

 Rulers of Calakmul 85

Just like the marital pair consisting of Ruler 2 and his

wife, these stelae share a number of features pointing to their having

been carved as a pair and dedicated simultaneously. Like Ruler 2 and

his wife, Ruler 5 and his wife stand on bound captives, are displayed

on the front face of their stelae, and are accompanied by texts on both

sides, with the back of the monuments left plain.

A case can be made that Structure VI, the stelae

commemorating the marital pair, and the altar set between them were

all dedicat€d on January 24, A.D. 702. Ruler 5 was also honored by

the dedication of three st€lae in association with Structure II. These

stelae -- Nos. 38, 40, and 41 -- also record the katun period ending in

A.D. 702.

RULER 6

Four stelae were set up in association with Structures

XVI and IVa to honor Ruler 6. As indicated above, Stelae 71, 72, and

73 were set up in A.D. 711 in association with Structure XVI; Stela 8

(see Figure 28) was set up in A.D. 721 apparently in association with

the southwest corner of Structure IVa.

86 Inscriptions of Calakmul

- ----

28. Hieroglyphic passage from Stela 8, set up on October 11, A.D. 721 to honor Ruler 6 and his
wife. (Both lines are from the left side; the top line runs from C7 to D8, the bottom line from C9
to DI0).
 Rulers of Calakmul 87

RULER 7

The construction of Structure I apparently took place

during the reign of Ruler 7, who is honored by a series of monuments

set up in association 'with the building. Stela 89, placed at the summit

of Structure I, records a date of September 3, A.D. 731 ([Link].14)

[see Figure 29]. A series of additional monuments (Stelae 48, 51, 52,

53, 54, and 55) were set up at the base of the structure (see Figures

30-32). The woman portrayed on Stela 54 may be the wife of Ruler 7.

88 I nscriptions of Calakm ul

29. Stela 89, erected on the top of Structure I, honors Ruler 7. On a fragment left behind by
looters (photo, at top) we can see what remains of part of the text [the intact left side was
published by IVlorley (1933: 20 1) and Ruppert and Denison (1943: Plate 53c)]. Shown in the
drawing below are the A7-B7 and A8-B8 gl:vph blocks, which may include another name (or title)
of Ruler 7.
 Rulers of Calakmul 89

30. Stela 51, called by Morley (1933:200) "the most beautiful monument at Calakmul", honors
Ruler 7. In contrast to most Calakmul stelae, this was found in excellent condition, because it had
fallen face down. (Photo courtesy of Tatiana Proskouriakoff, taken by the Carnegie Institution of
\Vashington in the 1930s.)
90 I nscriptions of Calakmul

31. Stela 51. This 1983 photo shows how looters cut the stela into square blocks for transport.
Ruler 7's monument now resides in the Museo Nacional de Antropologla in Mexico City.
 Rulers of Calakmul 91

32. Ruler 7's name clause from Stela 51, beginning with an event that occurred on the Calendar
Round date of 10 Ahau 13 Chen.
92 I nscriptions of Calakmlll

Further, it appears that Stela 52 and Stela 54 were

carved as a pair, because the ruler on Stela 52 is the only individual

that faces the woman, and they share other specific features that are

discussed under the heading of royal marital pairs.

RULER 8

Ruler 8's monuments were set up on the west side of

Structure VI and the east side of Structure XIV; the two sets of stelae

face each other across an open area. The first monument placed on the

west side of Structure VI was Stela 26 [[Link].0 (10 Ahau 8 Chen)];

it was centrally located and associated with a plain, round altar.

Approximately five years later, in A.D. 741 ([Link].0), Stelae 25

and 27 were set up to either side of the first stela and altar. At that

same time, two other stelae (Nos. 59 and 60) were placed on the east

side of Structure XIV. Finally, ten years later (A.D. 751), Stela 62

was set up on the west side of Structure XIV.

The fact that Ruler 8 places his monuments in

association with Structure VI -- a building possibly constructed and

renovated by Ruler 5 -- may indicate that Ruler 8 wished to link

 Rulers of Calakmul 93

himself to that earlier reign. Whether or not he was related

biologically to the earlier ruler is unclear.

RULER 9

The next senes of monuments, set up at the 'Nest

Group, was designed to honor Ruler 9. On the east side of Structure

XIII, at least two monuments (Stelae 57 and 58) were erected with

dates of A.D. 771 [[Link].0 (13 Ahau 18 Cumhu)]. On the north side

of Structure XVII (the building delimiting the southern end of th8

Southeast Court), Stela 80 was erected in A.D. 790 [[Link].0 (11

Ahau 18 Mac)]. Ten years later, in A.D. 800, three more monuments

(Stelae 67, 68, and 69) 'were set up to the southwest of the sculptured

outcrop that depicts seyen bound captives. On the cover of this report

is one of these nude figures (redrawn from Eric von Euw's original

sketch).
94 Inscriptions of Calakmul

RULER 10

Ruler 10's monuments were placed in the Central Plaza

and the West Group. In A.D. 810 [[Link].0 (9 Ahau 18 Mol)] Stelae

15 and 16 were erected in front of Structure IVb in the Central Plaza

and their placement there links Ruler 10 to one of the earlier Calakmul

rulers, Rule.r 3. Stelae 63, 64, and 65, on the other hand, were placed

to the north of Structure X, in the North Court of the West Group.

Additional monuments with eroded Initial Series dates may also honor

Ruler 10 or a still later ruler.

TEIVIPLES AND ASSOCIATED STELAE THAT
COMPRISE PLAZA GROUPS

Just as Proskouriakoff (1960) divided the stelae at

Piedras Negras into a chronologically-ordered sequence, we can divide

Calakmul's stelae into chronologically-ordered clusters on the basis of

their dedicatory dates and other epigraphic data. Using these stelae

and their associations with specific structures, we can suggest a

tentative chronological order for the structures as well.

In most cases, these clusters of stelae appear to

constitute dynastic records covering part or all of a ruler's reign;

occasionally, they may span a longer period of time. However, we can

conclude that nearly all of the lines of stelae set up in front of

individual structures appear to span reigns. In fact, in only one case

does the span between the earliest date and the latest date clearly

exceed that of a normal human lifetime -- specifically, in the case of the

95
96 Inscriptions of Calahmul

stelae set up on the ,vest side of Structure IVb. And in that case, it

appears that a later ruler decided to associat€ his stelae with those of a

much earlier ruler who may have been one of his ancestors.

If we assume that each ruler actually dedicated the

individual buildings (or enlargements or modifications on an extant

structure) with which his stelae are associated, we have a unique

opportunity at Calakmul. The precise dating provided by the st€lae

might allow us to present a t€ntative chronology for the order in which

certain buildings were dedicated at Calakmul (see Figures 33-42

following Table 3). These dates and structures are given in the table

on the next page.

 Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 97

Table 3. Stelae Dates and Associated Structures.

Long Count Dates Associated Structure

[Link].0 Str. V (north side)

[Link].5 Structure VIII

[Link].0-[Link].0 Str. V (south side)

[Link].0 StI'. IVb

[Link].0-[Link].0 Str. XV, XVI, XVIII, IX

[Link].0 StI'. VI, II

[Link].0 Str. XVI

[Link].0 Str. IVa

[Link].0.0 StI'. I

[Link].0-[Link].0 Str. VI (west side)

[Link].0 Str. XIV (east side)

[Link].0 StI'. XIII

9.1S.0.0.0 Str. XVII

[Link].0 Str. IVb, X

 98 Inscriptions of Calakmul

98

100

Meters
o 50

33. Structure V, dedicated around A.D. 623, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul; this was the oldest building associated with dated stelae. (In Figures 33-42, contour
interval is one meter; the dashed line indicates the trail to Central Buenfil which lies to the
northeast.)
 Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 99

98

I
I I
I

J
100

VIII

,,
,,
1JJf/
/'
(
I
/

,
/
I

-,/
/,,, V

Meters
o 50

34. Structure VIII, dedicated around A.D. 633, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. (In Figures 34-42, previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 100 Inscriptions of Calakmul

I
I

I
I
I
/
J

106

108

o 50

35. Structure IVb, dedicated around A.D. 672, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. (In Figures 34-42, previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 101

36. Four structures --XVI, XV, XVIII, and IX--dedicated between A.D. 672 and 682, shaded and
superimposed on a contour map of Calakmul. (In Figmes 34-42, previously dedicated buildings
are left unshaded.)
 102 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Meters
o 50

37. Structures II and VI, dedicated around A.D. 702, shaded and superimposed on a contour map
of Calakmul. (In Figures 34-42, previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 103

38. Structure I, dedicated around A.D. 731, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. (In Figures 34-42, previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 104 Inscriptions of Calakmul

o 50

39. Structure XIV, dedicated between A.D. 741 and 7.51, shaded and superimposed on a contour
map of Calakmul. (In Figures 34-42, previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 105

40. Structure XIII, dedicated around A.D. 771, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. (Previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 106 Inscriptions of Calakmul

98

100

VIII

Iik
/
/
I
I
I

./v
_/
/@'Vb

Meters

o 50 100

41. Structure XVII, dedicated around A.D. 790, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. (Preyiously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 /'
Temples and Associated Stelae at Calakmul 107

98

100

I
I
I

!@'Vb
,..-/
~--__________~r-_V

Meters

o 50

42. Structure X, dedicated around A.D. 810, shaded and superimposed on a contour map of
Calakmul. This structure divided a large court into two smaller ones, the North Court and the
Southeast Court. (Previously dedicated buildings are left unshaded.)
 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
 CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE OF STELAE
AND THEIR CONTEXT

The next task is to link individual reigns 'with the

dedication of st€lae and temples. Although alternative reconstructions

were carefully considered, I present here the reconstruction supported

by the most lines of evidence. Table 4 (see next page) provides in

chronological order the reigns of the ten Calakmul rulers, their stelae,

and associated structures.

109
110 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Table 4. Linking The Reigns of Ten Calakmul Rulers w Their Public

Buildings.

Stela [Link] Stela Possible

Date Structure Number Ruler#

A.D. 514 Reset on Str. II 43 1

A.D. 623 Str. V eN side) 28, 29 2

A.D. 6337 Str. VIII 1 2a?

A.D. 648-672 Str. IVb 9, 13

A.D. 657-672 Str. V (S side) 30- 37 3

A.D. 672 Str. XVIII 86

A.D. 672-680 Str. XVI 74,70 4

A.D. 682 Str. IX 93, 94

A.D. 672-692 Str. XV (W side) 75-79

A.D. 702 Str. VI 23,24,

altar
A.D. 702 Str. II 38, 40, 41 5
 Chronology and Context of Calakmul Stelae 111

A.D. 711 Str. XVI 71, 72, 73

A.D. 721 Str. IVa 8 6

A.D. 731 Str. I 48, 51-55, 89 7

A.D. 736-41 Str. VI (W side) 26, 25, 27

A.D. 741 Str. XIV 59, 60, 62 8

A.D. 771 Str. XIII (East) 57, 58

A.D. 790 Str. XVII 80 9

A.D. 800 Sculptured

Outcrop 67, 69
A.D. 810 Str. IVb 15, 16, 17 10
A.D. 810 Str. X 64, 65

Now we might comment briefly on a few of the patterns

revealed in these data. First, the Central Plaza seems to have been

the focus for the earliest rulers of Calakmul, while most of the later

rulers preferred the West Group or the Southeast Group for the

placement of their stelae. Second, within the Central Plaza it appears

that Structure V was the first building dedicated, followed by

112 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Structures VIII and IVb. Later, outside the Central Plaza, Structures

XVIII, XVI, IX, and XV were inaugurated. Finally, Structures VI, II,

I, XIV, XIII, XVII, and X were completed and stelae were set up in

association with them (see Figures 33-42).

 THE CALAKMUL REALM

Like the ancient Maya residing in other major cities of

Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Tabasco, and Quintana Roo, the IVlaya

of Campeche were active participants in a political, administrative, and

ritual system that linked the elite of different regions. Within each

major region there was a primary administrative center that headed

the regional hierarchy. Calakmul was one of these prImary centers,

administering a large area within southern Campeche. Calakmul was

surrounded by a hexagonal wheel of secondary administrative centers,

some falling within the modern Mexican state of Campeche, while

others lay in the northwestern corner of the Guatemalan Department

of Peten (see Figures 2 and 43).

113
114 Inscriptions of Calakmul

o, 10
,
km

-Balakbal

43. The site of Calakmul, linked by straight lines to the dependencies that were part of its Late
Classic realm. Possible tertiary sites around Uxul are also shown.
 The Calakmul Realm 115

An unanswered question is whether or not the large site

of El Mirador ever formed part of Calakmul's realm, or whether it

reached its peak too early to be involved. If El Mirador's heyday

occurred during the Late or Terminal Preclassic period, as Matheny

(1980) and Demarest (1984) believe, we will need to determine

whether another city became the dominant local center during the

Early Classic; alternatively, it might be that EI1:VIirador and Calakmul

co-existed for a time as co-dominant sites during the Early Classic. At

any rate, it appears that Calakmul eventually gained the upper hand

in this area, becoming the dominant regional center during the Late

Classic period. It may therefore be that as EI Mirador's power waned,

Calakmul's waxed. To judge from its dated stelae, Calakmul's heyday

as primary center spanned the Late Classic period -- A.D. 600-850 --

but it had certainly been occupied during the Early Classic, and

perhaps even earlier.

116 Inscriptions of Calakmul

The patterns revealed b}r the stelae erected at

Calakmul's dependencies re\"eal some surprising and important

patterns. These dependencies included (moving clockwise from the

north) Oxpemul, La Muneca, Alta Mira, Balakbal(?), Naachtun, Uxul,

and Sasilha (see Figure 43). Many of these sites have impressive

numbers of monuments, but fev; of their stelae and altars are in good

condition; this weathering makes it difficult to read the Initial Series

dates, and even more difficult to extract all the non-calendric data that

we \\'ould like. The total number of monuments known so far for the

"realm" (Calakmul plus its major dependencies) exceeds 250.

One of the surprising patterns revealed in the data from

Calakmul's dependencies is the span of dated monuments at each site.

 The Calakmul Realm 117

Table 5. Calakmul's Dependencies and the Time Span of Their

l\lonuments

Site Number of
Alonuments Span of Dates

')
Balakbal 5 [[Link].18-

Naachtun 45 [[Link].0-[Link].0J

Uxul 21 [[Link].0 -9.12.0. 0.0]

Oxpemul 19 [[Link].0 -10.0. O. [Link]

La Muneca 19 [[Link].0 -10.3. O. [Link]

Alta l\Era 19 ? ?

Now we will look briefly at some of these dependencies

and their carved monuments.

BALAKBAL

Prior to the erection of the first stela at Calakmul,

Balakbal set up Stela 5 [Initial Series date of [Link].18 (9 Etznab

16 Pop)J. This monument was dedicated during Cycle (or Baktun) 8

118 Inscriptions of Calakmul

and is contemporaneous with stelae erected at Uaxactun, Tikal, and

Uolantun, and perhaps with a tomb mural at RIo Azul, all located in

the Department of Peten, Guatemala. Although very little is known

about Balakbal, the earliness of this Initial Series date suggests that

the site was commemorating its elite even before such practices had

begun at Calakmul.

Another practice which appears earlier at Balakbal is

the association of stelae with temples; m fact, three of the five

Balakbal stelae were found in temples. Stelae 2 and 3 were both found

in the back of Structure V, the former in the northwest corner and the

latter in the southwest. The Cycle 8 stela -- Stela 5 -- was painted red

and buried near the center of the back wall of another temple

(Structure XlI).

/
NAACHTUN

Stela 23, another monument that may predate

Calakmul's earliest stela, was set up at Naachtun in A.D. 504 [its date

is [Link].0, according to Denison (1943: 153), although Morley (1938,

Volume 111:326-328) placed it at [Link].0 (12 Ahau 8 Mol), some ten

 The Calakmul Realm 119

years later than Calakmul's first stela]. Naachtun continued to erect

early monuments betvveen A.D. 534 and 564 (Stela 3 in [Link].0 and

Stela 5 in [Link].0 ?). These last two Naachtun monuments would

postdate the only known stela erected for Ruler 1 at Calakmul (A.D.

514).

Stela 1 ([Link].0) and Stela 2 ([Link].0) were

erected in association with Structure XXV at Naachtun and

commemorat€ periods ending in A.D. 623 and 642, respectively. These

dates are cont€mporaneous with monuments dedicated to Calakmul

Rulers 2 and 3.

Naachtun's Stela 21, located in the northwest corner of

Structure V in Group C, appears to portray a royal woman.

Additionally, a woman is mentioned in the inscription on the right side

of Stela 10; she appears to l:l€ a different woman from that portrayed

on Stela 21. The importance of women at secondary centers like

Naachtun is not unexpected, for the reasons given in other sections of

this report (e.g., p. 78).

Between A.D. 720 (?) and A.D. 761, at least four more

stelae were carved at Naachtun (Stdae 15, 9, 8, and 10). These

monuments would probably fall within the reigns of Calakmul Rulers 7

120 Inscriptions of Calakmul

and 8, who reigned during the period A.D. 731 - A.D. 761. The more

securely-dated monuments are Stela 9 at [Link].0, Stela 8 at

[Link].0, and St€la 10 at [Link].0. Stelae 9 and 8 were set up in

association with Structure XIX and may be but two of the monuments

dedicated to one important Naachtun ruler.

UXUL

During the reigns of Calakmul Rulers 2 and 3,

important monuments were also set up at Uxul. All the dates that we

have been able to read on Uxul's monuments fall within the period

from A.D. 623 to 672. In other \\'ords, our sample of dated

monuments at Uxul corresponds closely to the span of time covered by

the monuments dedicated to just those two Calakmul rulers.

Just south of Structure II at Uxul, Stela 2 was erected.

The figure on the front of Stela 2 appears to be a royal woman, and

she is looking at the male figure on the front of Stela 3, which was set

up to the south of Structure III. This possible marital pair may

represent the marriage of a Calakmul woman to a local Uxullord. The

associated dedicatory date on both stelae is eroded but one still can see
 The Calakmul Realm 121

9. 9. ? ? ? In addition, Altar 2, placed on the south side of

Structure VI, records three Initial Series dates that may be related to

events in the life of this same marital couple. Those dates are

[Link].18 (9 Etznab 16 Zac), [Link].0 (6 Ahau 18 Mac), and

[Link].0 (13 Ahau 18 Kankin). This Uxul couple was

contemporaneous v,ith Calakmul Ruler 2 and his "wife.

A promising line of research for the future might

include the excayation of those structures at Uxul that are associated

with dated stelae erected during the reigns of specific Calakmul rulers.

Some questions that might be partially answerable with such

excavation data (assuming more epigraphic information is included in

the tombs and caches in those structures) are as follows: Did a sister

of Calakmul Ruler 2 marry a lord of Uxul (a practice we have seen

used to link Tikal to Naranjo, and Yaxchilan to Bonampak)? If so, did

monuments at Uxul continue to be dedicated to that woman's offspring

during the reign of Calakmul Ruler 3? Were Structures II and III at

Uxul built following the marriage of a Calakmul woman with an Uxul

lord? Such research might secure more information on the

interrelationships of Calakmul and Uxul, on the one hand, and Uxul

and other centers, on the other.

122 Inscriptions of Calakmul

At a later date, other stelae at Uxul were carved with

the Initial Series dates of [Link].0 (Stelae 12 and 13) and

[Link].0 (Stela 6), dates that would fall within the reign of Calakmul

Ruler 3. Significantly, Stelae 12 and 13 were paired, erected on

opposite sides of the main stain,\,ay halfway up the east side of

Structure XI. These two individuals face each other conforming to a

pattern we have seen elsey,·here (especially at the regional capital,

CalakmuD. Stela 13 appears to depict a man, while Stela 12 may

prove to be a woman; hence we may have another marital pair.

OXPEMUL

All nineteen stelae at Oxpemul were carved, and every

stela was accompanied by an altar; hO'wever, fifty per cent of the

altars were plain. The Oxpemul dates span the reigns of Calakmul

Rulers 7 - 10.
 The Calakmul Realm 123

Table 6. Long Count Dates Reported from Oxpemul.

Stela Date

Stela 12 [Link].0
Stela 17 [Link].0
Stela 11 [Link].0
Stela 13 [Link].0
Stela 9 [Link].0
St€la 18 [Link].0
Stela 19 [Link].0
Stela 2 [Link].0
Stela 4 [Link].0
GAP
Stela 7 [Link].0

tV /
LA MUNECA (XAMANTUN)

\Vhile the dates of the two sites' monuments overlap,

some of La Muneca's monuments were set up after Calakmul had

ceased to erect stelae. For example, Stela 1 at La Muneca bears a

date of A.D. 889 ([Link].0). In fact, in contrast with the lengthy

span of dated monuments at Calakmul, all but one of La Muneca's

monuments were set up between A.D. 780 and 889. Denison

(1943: 123) noted that La Muneca's first stela was erected 80 years

after Calakmul's first, and its last stela was erected 80 years after

Calakmul's last Initial Series date had been recorded. However, there
124 Inscriptions of Calahmul

are some Calakmul stelae whose dates are illegible and which

stylistically could date to early Cycle 10, so the final word has not been

stated on the two sites' relationship nor when Calakmul ceased to

carve monuments.

ALTA MIRA

Unfortunately, none of the nineteen monuments at Alta

I\lira 'was in sufficiently good condition to permit Morley or Denison to

read any Initial Series dates. However, both authors noted a number

of long inscriptions, all the while lamenting the fact that they consisted

of "non-calendrical texts". Some of the Alta Mira monuments are

exceedingly tall; for example, Stela 10 is 5.65 meters high while Stela

12 measures 5.36 meters. The site will provide a challenge to future

epigraphers.
 MAINTAINING THE DIVINE RIGHT TO
RULE

There were several ways in \vhich l\laya rulers

legitimized their right to rule; in this preliminary report we will touch

on just a few. One method was to link themselves to supernatural

beings and to powerful natural forces which were considered not only

animate but also sacred (Marcus 1978, 1983a). These forces were

viewed as having the qualities that were appropriate for the Maya

elite.

Another method by which the divine right to rule was

maintained was through permanent written records linking

contemporary rulers to royal ancestors, some of whom had been earlier

rulers. Thus the living ruler attempted to mediate between the ruled,

on the one hand, and his divine royal ancestors and a series of

associated supernaturals, on the other. To these ends, permanent

125
126 I nscriptions of Calakmul

records were kept and both iconography and hieroglyphic writing were

employed to establish the rulers' links to the supernatural and to their

royal ancestors. Examples of iconography that aided in these ends

include various ritual scenes with their related hieroglyphic passages

(Figures 44-47). For example, certain bloodletting rites performed on

behalf of the deceased ruler by his widow served to link him to his

ancestors as well as his offspring (Marcus 1978: 185-186).

The placement of these permanent written records was

important m the establishment of the divine right to rule. Stelae at

Calakmul were clearly set up in association with temples (kuna -- ku,

"sacred"; na, "house"). These monuments were often placed in lines

that were bilaterally symmetrical, immediately m front of the

pyramidal base that supported a temple. Such architectural structures

have been likened to the mountains that housed ancestral spirits for

the highland Maya (Vogt 1964a:37-38, 1964b:390).

 Maintaining the Divine Right to Rule 127

44. Yaxchihin's Lintel 25, showing at lower right a kneeling woman holding a vessel with a
bloodletter (a stingray spine?), blood-spattered papers, and the bloodletting hieroglyph itself. At
left is a huge double-headed serpent above a vessel containing blood-spattered papers and a cord.
In the open mouth of the serpent is the bust of a deceased ruler, shown holding a shield in his left
hand and a spear in his right. Encircled by part of the serpent's body is a hieroglyphic panel that
begins with the hieroglyph "deceased" (T-93.672: 142). This text is read from right to left, the
reverse of standard reading order. This "serpent rite" may have been related to the accession
events taking place on the same day. This lintel was removed from the central doorway of
Structure 23. The sculptured area measures 1.18 x .74 meters. (Courtesy of and with the
permission of the British T\luseum, London. )
128 I nscriptions of Calakmul

45. Yaxchihin's Lintel 24 shows a woman (it right) passing through her tongue a thorny cord
which leads to a basket with blood-spattered papers. The ruler, Shield Jaguar, stands with a staff
held over her head. The hieroglyph for bloodletting is given in the panel behind his right hand, as
are the name and title of the ''''oman performing the bloodletting rite. This lintel was removed
from the southeast doorway of Structure 23. The sculptured area measures 1.04 x 0.74 meters.
(Courtesy of and with the permission of the British l\1useum , London. )
 Maintaining the Divine Right to Rule 129

46. Yaxchihin's Lintel 17 shows a woman (at left) who passes through her tongue a cord leading
to a vessel filled with blood-spattered papers. At right is Bird Jaguar, who reigned for sixteen
years beginning in A.D. 752. The name of the woman (Jaguar Ix) is given in the hieroglyphic
band at the bottom, while Bird Jaguar's name appears in the panel in front of his face. This
bloodletting rite seems to be related to the birth of an heiL named Shield Jaguar II. who will
succeed Bird Jaguar (Proskouriakoff 1963, 1964). The sculptured area is only 64 x 60
centimeters, and must be viewed up close to be comprehended. This lintel came from the
northwest doon~.'ay of the central room of Structure 21; it was remO\-ed by A. P. l\laudslay and
deposited in the British :Museum in 1883. (Courtesy of and wjth the permission of the British
1v1 useum, London.)
130 I nscriptions of Calakmul

47. Yaxchilan's Lintel 15 shows a woman invoking the spirit of a dead ancestor. At right, she
holds a basket containing a bloodletter (stingray spine?), blood·spattered papers, and the cord
which she had used to pass through a fleshy organ (probably her tongue). At left, ascending from
a vessel filled with blood·spattered papers, is a serpent in whose mouth is the face of the deceased.
This linters sculptured area measures 80 x 67 centimeters. This monument was remoyed from
the southeast doorway of the central chamber of Structure 21. (Courtesy of and with the
pennission of the British l\[Link], London.)
 Maintaining the Divine Right to Rule 131

It has been suggested that the lowland Maya, lacking

mountains in their natural environment, used temple pyramids as

homologous counterparts. If the Classic Maya elite believed that their

royal ancestors were descended from supernaturaIs that lived within

pyramids, such a location would be an appropriate place for the burial

of a ruler. Further, the Maya wished to link those rulers with the most

sacred and unchanging structures they built; the top of such a

pyramidal base would be an appropriate location for a temple. In fact,

l'vL D. Coe (1956:393) has used the term "funerary temple" to describe

the function of the temple-pyramid, concluding that "it was raised to

house the tomb of an important personage" (lbid.:392).

Both the placement of the stelae in front of temple-

pyramids and the monuments' iconographic and hieroglyphic content

reinforce the lack of separation between sacred and secular power in

the Maya state. The most famous case of a royal tomb built prior to

the construction of the pyramidal substructure and temple above is

that of Palenque CRuz 1954, 1958a, 1958b, 1958c, and 1958d).

At Calakmul excavations below the floor of the temple

designated Structure VII revealed a funerary crypt with vaulted roof

132 Inscriptions of Calakmul

containing a 25 to 30-year-old male with approximately 2000 pieces of

jade (including a mosaic mask, ring, plaques, and beads), flint knives

and obsidian bloodletters, vessels, and a lip plug inscribed with a short

text (Dominguez C. 1986, Gallegos G. 1985); however, unlike the

Palenque tomb, this one was apparently built after the pyramid and

temple. There is little doubt that the individuais buried in tombs below

temples are royalty and that such placement links them to the sacred.

Those buried directly below the floor of a palace (Structure III) at

Calakmul may be members of the lesser nobility, who are evidently not

worthy of the treatment afforded royalty, such as the construction of a

vaulted roofed chamber, the placement of numerous jade offerings in

the tomb, and the inclusion of objects inscribed "lith hieroglyphic

inscriptions that record the name of the deceased. The carving of the

deceased's name serves as a permanent memorial to him, preventing

him from being forgotten as were the names of lesser nobility and the

commoners.
 Maintaining the Divine Right to Rille 133

At Calakmul, Maya rulers are often portrayed on stelae

as larger-than-life individuals, wearing elaborate headdresses, carrying

staffs of office, standing on scantily-clad captives, and accompanied by

special paraphernalia used exclusively by royalty. Thus wrapped in

the sanctity of the temple, the political and economic ends of the Maya

state could be achieved.

 ROYAL MARITAL PAIRS AT CALAKMUL

There are five probable royal couples depicted on the

Calakmul stelae. One other pair of monuments dedicated in A.D. 692

will be discussed here since it has been suggested that it IS from

Calakmul; others suggest it 'was looted from El Peru or a third

unknmvn site. \Ve will deal with these six marital pairs in cursory

fashion here, reserving the lengthier treatment they deserve for our

next report. In Table 7 (see next page) the dates and building

associations of the stelae depicting royal couples are given.

135
136 I nscriptions of Calakmul

Table 7. Possible Royal Couples at Calakmul

Date Female Male Building

A.D. 623 St€la 28 Stela 29 N. side,

Str. V

A.D. 642-652? Stela 88(B)'" Stela 88 S. side,

[Link]

A.D. 662 Stela 9(B)'" Stela 9 W. Side,

Str. IV

A.D. 692 St€la I# St€la II# Cleveland

Kimbell#

A.D. 702 Stela 23 Stela 24 E. side,

Str. VI

A.D. 731 Stela 54 Stela 52 W. side,

Str. I

* (B) indicates the back of the stela.

#A royal woman is portrayed on Stela I \vhich now resides in the

Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio (l\liller 1974; Marcus 1976,
frontispiece); her husband is shown on Stela II, presently housed at the
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas [see Figures 49 and 50].
These two monuments lack provenience, but are included here because
Miller (1974) has suggested they were originally from Calakmul and
because they share many stylistic attributes with the five Calakmul
royal couples listed above. (Other scholars have suggested other
proveniences, including EI Peru.) Therefore, for comparative purposes
and for the sake of completeness they will be discussed briefly in this
report. The emblem glyphs in the texts will be discussed under the
heading of the same name.
 Royal Marital Pairs at Calakmul 137

THE A.D. 623 COUPLE

Stelae 28 and 29 were carved as a pair (see Figure 48).

Both display the same dedicatory date [[Link].0 (2 Ahau 13 Pop)]

and were carved on three sides, with the back left plain. These stelae

are nearly three meters high and are still standing on the north side of

Structure V (see Figure 23). No other stelae \\'ere set up on the north

side of this structure.

The two monuments show the marital pair facing each

other. Both stand on crouching captives that occupy the lower register.

The woman on Stela 28 holds both clenched hands to her chest,

apparently holding a two-headed ceremonial serpent bar. Her name

panel is L-shaped and frames her face and headdress. The man on

Stela 29 lets his arms hang beside him; a dwarf-like figure appears

belo\v his right hand. The male ruler's L-shaped name panel also

frames his face and headdress. These two monuments are near mirror

images conceived and designed as two halves of a scene.

138 Inscriptions of Calakmul

tfTf) \ /

I
:-,!'~'
"
F
"
I I I I
C
I '
. (;ll
!(,\\
~

.,~~ ,
I I
(I.
•
1/

,
~
\

i',-, r'
\-1 I'
, I ~
... - '1
, II
I :,
.1
,-, I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I

\
\
'--_ _ _ _ _ _- - _1 __ oJ

48. Two paired monuments (left, Stela 28; right, Stela 29) show the royal couple at A.D. 623.
,Beneath Ruler 2 (right) and his wife (left) are captive figures that face each other.
 Royal Marital Pairs at Calakmul 139

THE A.D. 642 - 652 COUPLE

Stela 88 is carved on all four sides; the male figure is

apparently on the front and the female on the back, with texts on the

sides. The stela is now broken into at least t"vo large fragments (see

Figure 60). Only the side [Link] the woman has been published;

Ruppert and Denison (1943: Plat€ 53a) publish only the upper

fragment, while Proskouriakoff (1950: Figure 42a) publishes both.

This monument has been style-dated by Proskouriakoff (1950:185) to

[Link].0 ± ? katllns which means that its position in time might

have to be adjusted as additional information is gathered.

THE A.D. 662 COUPLE

Stela 9 is unusual since it is carved from slate, and is

extremely thin. While the height is close to three meters and the width

half a meter, its thickness is only 15 centimeters. On the front of the

stela is the male figure, with the female occupying the back. The male

ruler stands atop four possible captive figures, two serving as pedestals
140 Inscriptions of Calahmul

under each foot (Ruppert and Denison 1943: Figure 48b). The ruler

holds a shield in his left hand, and a short object in his right.

Four dates occur on St€la 9, but only one of them is not

a period-ending date. That date is [Link].19 (3 Cauac 2 Ceh), the

Initial Series date on the left side. It is possible that this dat€ concerns

an event in the life of the woman, but I do not ha"e sufficient data at

this time to confirm it.

In large glyph blocks at the top of the back of the

monument appears the Calendar Round date corresponding to August

21, A.D. 662 [[Link].0 (11 Ahau 18 Chen)]. The woman's name is

given in two places -- m the panel of large glyph blocks (in the

principal inscription) and m a panel of smaller hieroglyphs

(incorporated as a band in her skirt). The terminal (or dedicatory) date

of the monument is A.D. 672 [[Link].0 (10 Ahau 8 Yaxkin)].

THE A.D. 692 COUPLE

Two stelae of unknown provenience -- carved in a style

similar to Calakmul's and apparently representing a royal marital pair

-- were once set up near each other, but now lie far apart and out of
 Royal Marital Pairs at Calakmul 141

their original context. The woman portrayed on Stela I is now in the

Cleveland l\luseum of Art, and the man on Stela II is in the Kimbell

l'.Iuseum of Art in Forth Worth, Texas (see Figures 49 and 50).

Unfortunately, we may never know whether the stelae are from

Calakmul or elsewhere.

The woman's name is given in two separate cartouches

in her headdress and again in the text at H2-H3 (see Figure 50). This

text begins with a key event that took place on [Link].5 2

Chicchan (8 Kayab). At B3-B4 is a passage that includes the verb

"accession to the throne" or "receives the manikin scepter" (Marcus

1976b:134-135, 138; 1983a:471); a noun; and an emblem glyph \'·:hich

I suggested in 1973 might possibly be Calakmul's.

142 Inscriptions of Calakmul

49. In A.D. 692, Stela II (above) and Stela I (Figure 50) were erected as a pair. This ruler's
name is given in the panel near his face. A marriage bundle appears near his left foot (redrawn
from Miller 1974: Figure 6),
50. Stela I gives the name of the ruler's wife in two cartouches in her headdress, and in the panel
next to her left leg. (redrawn from Miller 1974: Figure 2).
144 Inscriptions of Calakmul

For several reasons, Miller (1974) suggest€d that these

two monuments might be from Calakmul. One reason was the waist

motif (xoc, "shark" or "fish") worn by the woman on Stela I; the only

other example kno'wn to him was that v.'Orn by the woman on Stela 28

at Calakmul (l'vliller 1974: 159). In addition, l\liller considered a range

of other stylistic criteria. He emphasized that

If St. I and St. II were acknowledged to

come from Calakmul an unusual gap in the
chronological record would be filled at this site.
According to Denison's and Morley's reading of
dates, there were four stelae erected at Calakmul on
[Link].0 CSt. 9,13,32,75), three at [Link].0
(71, 72, 73), five at [Link].0 (48, 52, 53, 54, 55),
one on [Link].0 (62), two at [Link].0 (57, 58),
one at 9.1S.0.0.0 (SO), and two at [Link].0 (15,
16). It seems unlikely that none were erected to
commemorate the [Link].0 Katun anniversary,
particularly when five stelae were dedicated on
[Link].0 (23,24, 3S, 40, 41).

Lacking better alternatives at this

moment, I would accept l\larcus' identification of the
fourth unknown emblem glyph at Copan as
Calakmul. (Miller 1974:159-160)

While the date [Link].0 is poorly represented on the

less eroded stelae at Calakmul, there are at least a couple of eroded

monuments that might have included that period-ending date (Morley

 Royal Marital Pairs at Calakmul 145

in Ruppert and Denison 1943:119; Marcus 1970, 1983b). In fact, one

of these (Stela 79) is cited by Miller himself.

THE A.D. 702 COUPLE

Still standing on the east side atop Structure VI

(formerly called Structure F) is Stela 23, the woman associated with

the male on Stela 24. The latter stela has since fallen. Between this

marital pair is a small, plain altar. apparently shared. Both the male

and female appear to stand on bound captives; the woman is garbed in

a long dress.

Since both stelae ,,,,ere placed on the summit of

Structure VI, it would seem that the altar, the stelae, and the structure

were all dedicated on January 24, A.D. 702 [[Link].0 (7 Ahau 3

Cumhu)].
146 Inscriptions of Calakmul

THE A.D. 731 COUPLE

Stelae 52 and 54 are set up on the west side of

Structure I. Both commemorate the katun ending on August 20, A.D.

731 [[Link].0 (4 Ahau 13 Yax)J. These are two out of perhaps seven

stelae that commemorate the end of the 15th katun and the reign of

Ruler 7.

The woman on Stela 54 and the male on Stela 52 face

each other (see Ruppert and Denison 1943: Figures 51c and 51a); both

stand with feet at 180 degrees and ".;ear similar sandals. Embedded

,vi thin his elaborately feathered headdress is the hieroglyph for

accession (perhaps commemorating his recent accession to the throne),

while her headdress features the "fish nibbling " .'ater lily" motif. As

we have noted above, marriage and accession to the throne both served

as catalysts for the carving of royal couples at Calakmul.

 Royal Marital Pairs at Calakmul 147

Stela 52 shows Ruler 7 carrying a manikin scepter in

his right hand and a shield in his left. His name and titles are given in

two raised panels (one is in front of his headdress and the other is next

to his left thigh). His wife also apparently holds a manikin scepter in

her right hand and what appears to be a water lily in her left. This

regally dressed pair is the last marital couple honored at Calakmul.

 ROYAL WOl\iEN AT CALAKMUL

As many as five different women are portrayed on the

Calakmul stelae lMarcus 1974a. 1976b:174). Given that the time

span of these depictions was only 108 years (from A.D. 623 to A.D.

731), it is not surprising that they display significant similarities. most

notably in attire which features long beaded skirts and elaborate

feathered headdresses. Further, unlike most royal men at Calakmul,

these royal women are associated with iconographic elements that

emphasize "water symbolism"; this iconography includes various

motifs such as fish nibbling water lilies, snails, shells, and flattened

fish heads that clench large shells in their mouths. These "water"

motifs are often included as part of the woman's headdress or worn

around her waist. Not only do most royal women at Calakmul dress

alike, so also do some of the royal women depicted on monuments at

Calakmul's dependencies. However, among the dependencies. there

149
150 Inscriptions of Calakmul

are some exceptions -- for example, Stela 21 at N aachtun (Morley

1937: Volume V, Part 2, Plate 153c).

STELA 28

The earliest of the Calakmul monuments depicting

women is Stela 28, dedicated on March 19, A.D. 623 ([Link].0) [see

Figure 51J. On the front of the stela is a "','Oman facing to her left,

toward her husband on Stela 29 who in turn faces her (Figures 48).

This woman wears an elaborate feathered headdress and a long beaded

skirt that includes a rather crude version of the xoc motif -- the frontal

view of a flattened fish head, clenching a Spondylus shell in its mouth

-- at her waist (see Thompson's [1944J discussion of the xoc creature).

 Royal \Vomen at Calakmul 151

51. Stela 28, the first woman honored with her own monument at Calakmul.
152 Inscriptions of Calakmul

As Miller (1974:154) and Thompson (1944, 1962) point

out, the Maya term :roc can mean either "mythological fish" or "count";

in Yucatec it can also mean "hips" or "waist", which is exactly where

this motif is worn by the royal women of Calakmul. Additionally,

Miller states that in various highland Maya languages (such as Quiche,

Cakchiquel, Tzutujil, Kekchi, Pokomam, and Pokomchi) ixoc means

"senora" or "lady". Thus, l\filler suggests that the :roc motif is a rebus

for "waist" and "senora" -- that is, "a lady's waist".

The Stela 28 woman holds her arms in a position

characteristic of much-earlier monuments (those carved in the Earl:-'

Classic period), in which the arms are bent at the elbow and the fists

are clenched against the center of the chest. In the crook of each elbow

is a head held in the jaws of a serpent, which is part of a ceremonial

bar. Below the woman's feet (which are splayed out at 180 degrees) is

a separate register containing a captive figure, apparently lying face-

down (see Figure 48). Two weathered hieroglyphic panels (one behind

her, the other bracketing her headdress) supply us with parts of her

name. At least one feminine head glyph occurs in the upper panel (see

Figures 48 and 51). Texts on the sides of the stela are shown in

Figures 52-55.
 153
Royal \Vomen at Calakmul

52. Text on left side of Stela 28.

154 I nscriptions of Calakmul

53. I'Jight photograph of the left side of Stela 28, showing the Initial Series date [Link].0 (2
Ahau 13 Pop), which corresponds to March 19, A.D. 623.
 Royal "'omen at Calakmul 155

54. Left side of Stela 28.

 I nscriptions of Calakmu[
156

55. Right side of Stela 28.

 Royal Women at Calakmul 157

STELA 9

A woman is depicted on the back of Stela 9, dedicated

August 21, A.D. 662 [[Link].0 (11 Ahau 18 Chen)]. Her husband

appears on the front face of the same monument. Like the "senora" on

Stela 28, this woman wears a beaded skirt \'lith a xoc motif at her

waist. In contrast to Stela 28, however, the elements are not crudely

done, even though they are somewhat eroded. A Spondylus shell, a

nibbling fish, and part of a flattened fish head can be discerned. Atop

her head is an elaborate headdress that includes a tied-up Spondylus

shell with a water lily attached; a "snail"; a possible bone (?), and

elements of the serpent bar. Her feet are also splayed out at 180

degrees. Below her sandals we see a separate register containing, on

the left, a short text of five or six glyphs, and on the right, a captive.
158 Inscriptions of Calakmul

56. Lower register on the back of Stela 9, showing the Calendar Round date of 13 Ahau 16 Yax
(?), the date the captive shown here was taken by the woman portrayed in the register above.
 Royal Women at Calakmul 159

57. On the back of Stela 9, this verb "was captured" is followed by this feminine head glyph,
which forms part of the name of the woman portrayed in the register above. (From text in lower
register.)
160 Inscriptions of Calakmul

The text in this lower register begins with a date --

apparently intended to read 13 Ahau 18 Yax (?) [although it now looks

more like 16 Yax (?)] -- followed by the verb "was captured", and a

feminine head glyph postfixed by a few unclear hieroglyphic elements.

Thus, this text indicates that the woman --who is named and portrayed

in the register above -- had "captured" the figure depicted in the lower

register (see Figures 56 and 57).

Her name is given m two other places -- in the mam

text (above her head) and in a band of eight hieroglyphs incorporated

into the lower part of her skirt (Figure 58). Of the eight glyphs, at

least six are "head" glyphs. Three of these are animal heads (one is

possibly a jaguar), and the remaining three are variants of the

"feminine head glyph" (see Figure 59).

 Royal Women at Calakmul 161

STELA 88

Since the date on Stela 88 is so weathered, it is difficult

to be precise about the dedicatory date. Proskouriakoff (1950: Figure

42a, 114, 185) was able to date it on stylistic grounds to A.D. 652 ±
(?) [[Link].0 ± (?)J. This woman holds her arms in the same archaic
position seen on Stela 28 (see Figure 60).
162 I nscriptions of Calakmul

58. On the back of Stela 9, a band of hieroglyphs, giving the name of Ruler 3's wife, is
incorporated into her skirt.
 Royal Women at Calakmlll 163

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

59. A band of hieroglyphs that giyes the name of the woman on the back of Stela 9. Note three
probable feminine head glyphs (at 1, 3, and 8) among the other head glyphs.
164 I nscriptions of Calakmul

60. The woman portrayed on Stela 88 at Calakmul.

 Royal \Vomen at Calakmlll 165

In the crook of each arm is the "grotesque" head of a

supernatural. In her right arm, \ve see the head of an elderly, bald

man with a superfix of the number 6, 7, or 8; in the crook of her left

arm is a "God K" head with a superfix of the number 6, 7, or 8 and

the sign for black + (?) (Ruppert and Denison 1943: Plate 53a).

This woman's attire is similar to that of the lady on

Stela 9. She also wears a long beaded skirt with a large xoc at her

\vaist and has her feet splayed out at the 180 degree position. In the

lower register there may have been a captive, now eroded.

STELA I

Dating to March 16, A.D. 692 is Stela I, now housed in

the Cleveland :l\1useum of Art (see Figure 61; or frontispiece in Marcus

1976b; drawing first published by Miller 1974: Figure 2, and redrawn

here as Figure 50). This woman is dressed in keeping with the attire

typically worn by royal women at Calakmul, but the actual

provenience of this stela is unknown (see pp. 135-136).

166 I nscriptions of Calakmul

61. Stela I, showing an elaborately-dressed woman, who wears the xoc motif at her waist. (Photo
courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art.)
 Royal Women at Calakmul 167

She wears a beautifully-made ankle-length beaded skirt

with a well-preserved and carefully-carved xoc motif at her waist. In

the xoc creature's mouth (a Spondylus shell), three small hieroglyphs

are incised. Like the woman on the back of Stela 9, she has her

hieroglyphic name embedded in her clothing; however, unlike the

woman on Stela 9 (whose name appeared as a band in her skirt), this

woman's name occurs in her headdress. Among the feathers are two

nearly-circular cart()uches that gi\'e her name, which is also repeated in

the main text (G2-H2). Among other events described in the main

text, ,,·:e find the accession of a ruler named "Jaguar Paw", who

"received the manikin scepter", followed by an emblem glyph.

STELA 23

This woman, whose stela was dedicated ten years after

Stela I, wears a long skirt with a beaded fringe at the bottom (Figure

62). A horizontal line of hieroglyphs is incorporated into the bottom of

her skirt, very similar to the glyph band in the skirt worn by the

woman on Stela 9.
168 Inscriptions of Calakmul

62. Stela 23~ a Calakmul 'WOITlan.

 Royal Women at Calakmul 169

63. Stela 23. Note the hieroglyphic band near the bottom of this woman's skirt; a similar
hieroglyphic band was incorporated into the skirt worn by the woman on Stela 9 (see Figures 58
and 59).
170 Inscriptions of Calakmul

Although eroded, four hieroglyphs are visible, at least

one of which is a feminine head glyph (Figure 63). This clause appears

to include the ''''oman's name. She is shown standing with her feet

positioned at the familiar angle of 180 degrees (Denison 1943: 104).

STELA 54

This woman wears elaborate paraphernalia including a

multi-strand collar or necklace of small jade plaques and a feather

headdress with the "fish nibbling water lily" motif; she holds a water

lily in her left hand, and a manikin scepter in her right. Her skirt is

eroded, but there is the outline of what appears to be a xoc motif at her

waist. Like other Late Classic royalty at Calakmul and elsewhere, she

also has her feet positioned at an angle of 180 degrees. A narrow

register occurs beneath her feet but its contents are not clear; it

appears to be similar to the register beneath her husband's feet (on

Stela 52). The woman's sandals also appear to be identical to her

husband's (compare Stela 54 with 52 in Ruppert and Denison 1943:

Plates 51a and 51c).

 EMBLEM GLYPHS

Before embarking on a discussion of the emblem glyphs

m the inscriptions at CalakmuL let us briefly revie\\' some of the

results of past work dealing with emblem glyphs. For lengthier

treatments of the subject, we refer the reader to earlier sources (Berlin

1958, 1977:87-90; Marcus 1973, 1974a, 1976b, 1984).

Most frequently, emblem glyphs are encountered in

clauses that provide the names and titles of Maya lords; however, they

may also occur in clauses that list "places". In some cases, emblem

glyphs occur in clauses referring to four major "realms", regional

capitals, or polities (Marcus 1973, 1976b, 1983a). Unfortunately,

clauses of the latter type are known only for the Late Classic period

(e.g. Stela A at Copan, Stela 10 at Seibal); the Copan clause lists four

realms: Copan, Tikal, Calakmul (?), and Palenque. These Late Classic

regional centers not only administered large realms, but they also were

171
172 Inscriptions of Calakmul

at the apex of well-developed regional hierarchies -- an important

contrast v·:ith the Early Classic pattern.

While Berlin (1958:111), perhaps 'wisely, was

noncommittal about the precise meaning of "glifos emblemas", he did

offer a range of possible meanings (dynastic names, lineage names,

tutelary deities, or site names). In my earlier research, I concluded

that emblem glyphs functioned as geographical referents, which I

loosely referred to as "site names" or "place names". Some emblem

glyphs may refer to a unit as large as the whole realm, polity, or

territory administered by a regional capital; others may be used in a

more restricted or specific geographical context (Berlin 1977:87-88;

Marcus 1974a, 1976b; Kelley 1976:215).

I consider it likely most emblem glyphs functioned as

geographical referents -- and that they refer to the whole territorial

unit or realm -- primarily because of the distribution pattern of emblem

glyphs and the fact that most Mesoamerican Indians thought in terms

of territorial units which included all the inhabitants that either owed

allegiance to a particular ruler or labored periodically in the service of

that ruler and his capital (Marcus 1983c:206-208). Such an area

would extend well beyond the "downtown" of a Maya center, beyond its
 Emblem Glyphs 173

walls if it were a walled city, and beyond the high density of

monumental plaza groups (and even not-so-monumental plaza groups).

Such a realm might include lower-order centers (such as Chikin Tikal

or Uolantun, for example) that never attain sufficient independence

from the capital to acquire their own emblem glyphs. Since some

capitals had more than one emblem glyph, I also considered it possible

that one emblem glyph might have referred to the "site center" or

"inner city" itself, while another was used to indicate the entire realm.

The latter glyph could then be used by the capital, its dependencies

located within that realm, and by other capitals in other realms.

Unfortunately, emblem glyphs are not numerous in the

Calakmul inscriptions. One explanation may be that the severe

weathering of the stelae has simply destroyed many that were

originally present in the texts. In a future report on Calakmul in

which more detailed epigraphic analyses will be presented, I hope to

discuss a wider range of possible emblem glyphs. In this preliminary

report, however, we will look at only a few of the more convincing

emblem glyphs that occur.

On Stela 51, three possible emblem glyphs appear in

the text (Figures 64 and 65a-c). Only one of the three (Figure 65a)
174 Inscriptions of Calakmul

appears to refer to Calakmul; the other two may refer to other places.

A fourth emblem glyph (different from the three mentioned above)

occurs on Stela 62 (Figure 65d). Still other emblem glyph candidates

can be seen on Stelae 52, 64, 15, and 89.

An important emblem glyph (see Figure 650 occurs in

the inscriptions of the Cleveland Museum stela [thought by Miller

(1974) to have been removed from Calakmul]. The same emblem

glyph (main sign T-764 shown in Figure 65e; Thompson 1962) is also

mentioned in the texts of Dos Pilas, Tikal, Copan, and Seibal (see

Figure 65g, h, i, and j). At both Copan and Seibal, this glyph occurs as

the third in a list of four emblem glyphs which appears to refer to the

four major realms described as "on high" (Marcus 1973, 1976b,

1983a). In 1973 I suggested that this third realm might belong to

"Calakmul (?)", deliberately attaching a question mark to it m

recognition of the insufficient data available then. At the very least, it

is clear from the context -- and the span of dates (A.D. 692 -- A.D.

849) covered by these stelae at Tikal, Copan, and Seibal -- that this

emblem glyph has to refer to a very important Late Classic center

v,:hich lasted into Cycle 10.

 Emblem Glyphs 175

64. A name followed b~' a possible emblem glyph on Stela 51 (see Figure 65a') . This is the close
up of a short glyph panel next to Ruler Ts right leg, on the front of the stela.
176 Inscriptions of Calakmlll

a b

60
c d

e f 9

65. Emblem glyphs from various contexts. (a) Possible emblem glyph, panel near right leg of
Ruler 7 (Stela 51, Calakmul). (b) Possible emblem glyph, incised near ruler's face (Stela 51,
Calakmul). (c) Emblem glyph associated with captive (Stela 51, Calakmul). (d) Emblem glyph
(Stela 62, Calakmul). (e) Main sign T-764 of emblem glyph. en Emblem glyph (Stela I). (g)
Emblem glyph (Stela 13, Dos Pilas). (h) Emblem glyph (Lintel 3, Tikal). (i) Emblem glyph (Stela
A, Copan). U) Emblem glyph (Stela 10, Seiball.
 Emblem Glyphs 177

In addition to the glyphs discussed above (some of which

are shown in Figure 65), there are other candidates for emblem glyphs

in the Calakmul inscriptions. Since none of these emblem glyphs

occurs with sufficient frequency, however, it is difficult to make a

strong case regarding which "city" or "realm" might be designated by

each. With additional epigraphic work in the Calakmul realm --

particularly at Calakmul's dependencies -- and with research in nearby

regions, in the future we may be in a better position to assign some of

these emblem glyphs to particular localities.

 A RESEARCH DESIGN FOR CALAKMUL

In spite of the numerous excavations carried out there,

research in the Maya area is widely regarded as lagging behind that of

other areas of Mesoamerica, where investigators have concerned

themselves explicitly with the formulation of testable anthropological

hypotheses and have adhered more closely to scientific research

designs. Ironically, however, the Maya area is ideal for the

formulation and testing of a wide range of anthropological hypotheses

precisely because it affords us so many lines of evidence -- archaeology,

iconography, epigraphy, and monuments dated to the exact day.

At a number of Maya sites, it is clear that specific

structures (whether temples or palaces) were built by or for a specific

ruler. Such associations are evident when the ruler's name is carved

on the lintels or wall panels, because in both cases the hieroglyphic

texts are incorporated into the building itself. In other cases, a tomb

179
180 Inscriptions of Calakmul

may be built for a specific ruler prior to the construction of the temple

which stood above it. Because so many of Calakmul's monuments are

still in situ -- linking specific rulers and their dated reigns to specific

buildings which are still largely unexcavated -- the site seems

unusually suited for a program of carefully-designed research. Such

research could yield a chronology tied to the specific reigns of named

rulers, whose contributions to the growth of the realm can be defined

between Long Count dates.

We have seen that the time span of the stela groups

placed in front of Calakmul's temples rarely exceeds that of a human

lifetime; most, in fact, appear not to exceed the length of a reign. The

time spans vary from as few as zero years (in the case of groups

whose stelae all include the same dedicatory date) to groups which

have dedicatory dates separated by as many as 40 years.

These spans of time all extremely short by

archaeological standards -- lead us to hope that the dedication of each

temple took place during the reign of the ruler whose monuments were

set up before it; for if the dedications of stelae and temples were

coincident, they can enable us to establish a much finer-grained

chronological sequence. The ceramics associated with each temple

 Research Design (or Calakmul 181

could then be used to establish subphases, perhaps on the order of 100

years or even less. Since traditional Maya ceramic phases often span

periods of 200 to 500 years, the establishment of shorter subphases

within the Late Classic could produce the kind of sequence

archaeologists often dream about when peermg at the data

ethnohistorians have at their disposal.

As far as we kno\,·.', the span of time encompassed by all

Calakmul monuments -- with the exception of Stela 43 -- falls within

the Late Classic period. I therefore suggest that systematic excavation

of the following structures, in the order indicated, might produce a fine-

grained sequence of changes in architectural techniques and ceramic

popularity which could be tied to Long Count dates.

1. Excavation of Structure V (A.D. 623?)

2. Excavation of Structure VIn (A.D. 6347)

3. Excavation of Structure IV

4. Excavation of Structure XV

5. Excavation of Structure XVIII (A.D. 672?)

6. Excavation of Structure XVI

182 Inscriptions of Calakmul

7. Excavation of Structure IX (A.D. 682?)

8. Excavation of Structure VI

9. Excavation of Structure II (A.D. 702?)

10. Excavation of Structure I (A.D. 731?)

11. Excavation of Structure XIV (A.D. 741?)

12. Excavation of Structure XIII (A.D. 771?)

13. Excavation of Structure XVII (A.D. 790?)

14. Excavation of Structure X (A.D. 810?)

Our working hypothesis would be that the dedication of

the temple, the stelae, and the ruler's reign coincide. If this is

confirmed, it could result in a fine-grained sequence conforming closely

to the order of the 14 excavations proposed above. If, on the other

hand, such a chronological pattern should not be confirmed, we would

have still learned something (cf. Ricketson and Ricketson 1937:154);

 Research Design for Calakmul 183

and we would then have to consider what other factors might have

affected the timing of temple constructions, enlargements, and

refurbishments. At the very least any additional inscriptions, tombs,

or caches which came to light in the course of excavating the structures

on the list above would assume greater significance because they would

be given a context no random discovery can hope to have.

 FUTURE RESEARCH AT THE REALM
LEVEL

Past I\laya research has concentrated mainly on

primary centers and intra-site patterns; much less attention has been

devoted to site interactions \vithin a political region, and the ways in

which it can be documented. This intermediate level -- above that of

the site and below that of the long-distance networks -- has yet to see

its full potential tapped. Establishing the links between a primary

center such as Calakmul and its lower-order dependencies is a difficult

task, yet an important one, since it would give us information which

could then be compared with the articulations of primary centers and

their dependencies in other regions (such as those of Tikal, Palenque,

and Copan).

At this writing, Folan and his mapping team have

covered 30 square kilometers, beginning in "downtown" Calakmul;

185
186 Inscriptions of Calakmul

their plan is to continue surveying until they reach at least some of the

secondary centers. With this research strategy, it will be possible to

see the settlement pattern of a region that functioned as a political

unit. Excavation will be necessary both at lower-order centers and at

the regional capital to answer many questions regarding the nature of

the regional economy and sociopolitical organization. There are many

fundamental aspects of this regional organization we do not know. For

example, do capitals have types of buildings that are lacking at lower-

order centers? Do capitals offer services and fulfill functions not

performed by lower-order centers? Do capitals construct causeways to

link themselves to their dependencies? Are the items produced at

dependencies different from those produced at capitals? Is the

production or distribution of goods at dependencies different from that

at capitals? Is manpower organized differently within the realm? Do

lower-order centers perform activities not carried out at capitals? The

answers to all these questions should be yes, but we still do not know

the full range of crafts and goods produced at lower-order centers

(different types of pottery, eccentric flints, other tool types), nor do we

know all the mechanisms integrating lower-order centers with regional

capitals.
 Research at the Realm Leuel 187

Of all the New \Vorld states, the Maya afford us one of

the best opportunities for understanding the evolution, operation, and

eventual fall of a complex society. Few other states offer such a

variety of complementary data sets, including sixteenth-century

descriptions of religion, social, and political organization; hieroglyphic

inscriptions that span more than 600 years; regional settlement

pattern data; intrasite evolution of plaza groups; deep, stratified

deposits that provide architectural sequences; excellent

glottochronological data; and data on subsistence and technology. The

challenge is for us to integrate all these lines of evidence and to

compare the Maya with other Mesoamerican states, to discover what

they all share and how they differ in development and operation.
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