Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data io amp eget —— sala septs PEWisins? “aog-o 118877 ISBN’ O-15-725018-X ‘Aacea Editorial/production supervision and interior design by A. G. Roney Cover design by Karolina Harris Manufacturing buyer: Harry P. Baisley © 1982 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632 ‘All rights reserved. No part of this book ‘may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publiaher. Printed in the United States of America 098765432 . ZSBN 0-13-723015-X Prenvicr-HaL Ivreanarionat, INc., London » Prentice-Haut or Ausrratia Pry. Loarren, Sydney Puantice-Haus oF Canana, Lrp., Toronto ‘Prewrice-Has or Inia Parvare Luarrep, New Delhi [Link] Jaran, Inc., Tokyo Prrwrice-Hau. or Sourmmast Asta Pre. Lip., Singapore Warren Booxs Limtrep, Wellington, New ZealandObjectives of the Course: This is a course in essay writing, which implies that the students must master certain skills that will enable them to write competent university essays. The students must understand and be able to produce the techniques by which writers communicate. At the end of the course, the students should be able to demonstrate a command of the following skills: 1. Prewriti : The obligation is to think before writing: ‘a subject that reflects genuine interest and understanding. BL Narrow the subject so it can be adequately covered within the limits of the assignment. ._ Write a thesis comprised of topic, opinion or intent, and controlling ideas. Organization: American universil students must be able to: ‘K- Organize their essays clearly and straightforwardly, begin and end the paper thoughtfully, and make relationships between ideas clear. B. Move smoothly from one paragraph to another. -3._Support: The students must prove the validity of their ideas to potential ‘0 they must learn to: “A Siiport general statements with specific details, and be able to difer- entiate between general and specific. a THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITINGB. Use evidence—examples, facts, personal experience, physical desctiption —in developing ideas. 4._Grammar and mechanics: The students must be able to: Use language with precision. B. Avoid common errors of grammar and usage. C. Strengthen writing through revision. The Audience Two sees rules f yr this course are ry Write about what you The audience is an essenti ncept for all writers. Writers choose their subjects af\d their methods of pfesénting material (diction, sentence structure, organizal to wo will read the finished product. In this cl fenco/will be your peers as well as your teacher. In sonnl oa communicate wi ir audience, to write paragraphs and essays that COON DA DARE t aad reheehiydu must be 1. Specific 2. Precise 3. Able to demonstrate what you state In addition, you must decide who you are because your attitude will affect your presentation to your audience. Below are examples of possible audiences and writers: Possible Audiences 1. Anelementary school class 2. A professor of microbiology 3. A roommate 4. Aclassmate Possible Writers 1. Anelementary school teacher. 2. A graduate student in microbiology 3. An author of romantic novels 4. A first-year college student in a history class If, for example, you are asked to write a paragraph on the subject “How I Spent Last Saturday,” your selection process, your focus, will be different if you Fite ° 7] 7 1. Alletter to your grandmother 2 ‘THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING2. A report for a seminar in sociology 3. A note to your best friend Not only what you write but how you write it will be determined by the audience. EXERCISE 1. Write a paragraph describing a tree for the following three audiences: A. Anelementary school child B. Thisclass C. A professor of botany 2. You have been gambling in Las Vegas and have lost all the money you were going to use to go to graduate school this semester. Write a letter to two of the people listed below. The goal of this letter is to obtain the money necessary for school. Truth need not be a part of the letter. A. The political leader of your country B. The university student aid office C. Your rich grandfather D. The head of the CIA Showing and Telling In the paragraphs below, students wrote about their mothers. The information in these paragraphs demonstrates the differences between SHOWING TELLING (Demonstrating) (Asserting) Simply telling your reader what you want to communicate may be easy, but it is rarely very interesting or even very believable. In order to support your statements, you will need to use specific details and examples. In other words, showing your reader that what you have presented is valid will make your essay more interesting and more believable. Read the sample paragraphs. Which sentences in each paragraph simply tell about the mother? Which sentences show—that is, which sentences contain specific details and examples about the mother? In addition, which sentences discuss the mother? Do some sentences tell about the writer instead? It started nineteen years ago when she brought me into the world. Maw gave me the best care any child could have gotten. She has taught me more than any teacher in school and is overflowing with love. Always understanding and easy to communicate with and there when needed. She's the best: my “Maw.” 3 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITINGMom is a gray haired lady of about 72 years. She is very sweet when she wants to be and very difficult when she puts her mind to it. Ihad toteach her how to drive at the age of 50, and the only safe place to teach her was in a wheat field. She is a determined lady; for example, when I was teaching her todrive she backed up the car until it boiled, but she did learn how to back. She has more trouble now keeping her stories in correct order and true. I love my mother more as I grow older. Irealize some of the things she had to go through to raise me. An essay on my mother you said, and I began thinking what to write. I just realized that it’s possible that I don’t truly know my mother, or at least not as well as I'd thought. She’s about an inch shorter than I am and we look very much alike. Both of us have a spreading hip problem. My mom’s always there. She’s easy totalk to and I like hearing her opinions. | really admire her because she went back to school a few years ago and now is teaching in an elementary school. She really loves her job and the children. She also has plenty of time to keep up just about everything else that she did before working. Now that my brothers and sisters and Tare older and more on our own I'm very glad that my mother’s the way she is. She has accepted the fact that we have lives of our own, and she is going on living hers. ‘My father has also benefited from this. They really make a good team. My mom can handle just about anything that life can throw at her. Usually she’s the most excitable person in our house. I just can’t imagine what it would be like without her. Except that I would feel as though some great knowledge had been torn from my own self. ‘My mother was born in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1918, She grew up in the Bavarian Alps and lived there until her family moved to the city of Marleruhe which lies near the Black Forest, along the Rhine River. Just prior to World War I, my mother married my father and I came along in 1939. In 1945, after the war and after my father had been killed in action, my mother met and married my stepfather and travelled with him to the United States to live with him and me in California where she still resides. The following paragraphs were written by students in response to an assignment to write a paragraph about their names. The students tried to show, by using factual information, details, and examples, what their names meant. Are there specific details in the paragraphs? What makes each paragraph interesting? What details are memorable? ‘THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING5 My complete name is Lili Margarite Chan Gonzalez, My first name, Lili, was the name of a ballet dancer. She was my grandfather's fiancee. They never got married because one night after her show she was killed with a knife in the street where she used ta live. In my country most of my friends call me Lilian because they say that Lili is a diminutive of Lilian, My second name is the name of a flower and algo the name ofa saint. In the Catholic religion, our second name must have a Catholic meaning. Chan, my third name, is a Chinese name. I really don’t know anything about it. My real last name is Gonzalez, and it isa very common Spanish name. Lili Gonzalez (Brazil) My full name is Adel Addeb Ali Hassan Ali Ebram Ovhide Salamah Farag Al-Hadad. These ten names are my name plus my father's and my grandfather's from my father’s side. it is a custom in Arabia that every child has to be called by his father’s side. My family name is supposed to be Al-Hadad, but for some reason my sixth grandfather was famous, so his sons and grandsons took his name to be a family name. All of these names are Arabian. As it is everywhere, one name has been repeated, maybe because it was common during that time. Of course, I just use three of these names at school, and in most of my daily life I just like to becalled by my first name, Adel. Besides that point, we have another habit of calling the child Mohammed when he is born for the first seven days. So actually I would have twenty names if we add Mohammed before each of my other names, as it iscommon to do back home, I remember all of these names because it is believed that we should be proud of our grandfathers. Adel Salamah (Saudi Arabia) My name is Sin Sing Chiu, Henry. Anyone who looks at my first and second name will be puzzled by the meanings that they convey in the English language. The two words seem to indicate that I have committed so many crimes that I have come to “sing” them out. However, Sin Sing have completely different meanings in the Chinese language. In my family, every male generation is assigned a definite first name; mine happened to be Sin, which means “kind” in Chinese. The second name is given by my grandfather. He thinks that kindness should be widespread over the lands and seas. It is for this reason that I have received the name Sing which means “voice.” Chiu is my last name, and I am proud of it, because it is one of the names of the dynasties in China, and it includes a very large family. We even have generation books dated back to our great-great-great grandfathers. My English name, Henry, was chosen by my brother; it is for convenience that I have THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITINGadopted this name. Since my Chinese name is not very easy to say, I can be remembered by my English name. Henry Chiu (Hong Kong) General and Specific In the construction of a paragraph you will need to know the difference between a general idea and a specific detail. Between the two, many levels of generality may exist. In the examples below, each subset is more specific than the word or phrase above it. That is, each of the subsets is subordinate to the word above it. You indicate this subordination by indenting the word. solar system planets earth North America United States Colorado Fort Collins Colorado State University aclassroom edsay tree paragraph trunk sentence branch word twig syllable leaf letter In the examples below, a single general word is followed by several more specific words. Each of the more specific words is equal, that is, each is on the same level of generality. This means that each of the more specific words is a coordinate of the word before it. Notice that a more specific word can becomea general word. GENERAL MORE SPECIFIC MORE SPECIFIC lion 4 a horse : > == dog __ grizzly bear bear == brown bear — polar bear 6 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITINGGENERAL MORE SPECIFIC MORE SPECIFIC assault victims emergency treatment <~ heart attack vi burn victims “~ accident vietims broken bone victims drowning victims In the examples below, each general sentence is made more specific. 1. General: Airlines transport people all over the world. Specific: United Airlines has daily flights from Denver to New York City and yndon. 2 General: Foreign students often have adjustment problems in the United tates. ‘Specific: Morella has trouble understanding her American roominate. EXeRcise Choose two of the following general words. Write a genertil sentence about each word, and then write a more specific sentence about each word. 1. fish 2. hospital 3. transportation 4. movies 5. flowers Make specific statements from the general statements below. 1. People who play sports sometimes get hurt. 2. National parks are crowded during the summer months. 3. Learning a second language is difficult. 4. Gardening can be fun. 7 ‘THE FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITINGThe Paragraph Introduction 8 A paragraph is a series of sentences that develop an idea. That idea is usually stated in a general form in one sentence, called the topic sentence. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph provide the reader with specific explanations or proof (evidence, support) of the general topic sentence. The supporting sentences help the reader understand more clearly what the writer means and show that the topic sentence is valid. Read the following two paragraphs and then do the exercise. Science is a serious magazine both in content and in shape. It is written by scientists, experts in their fields, and it covers current issues that have universal scientific interest. The content is organized in fixed sections: editorials, letters, news, reports, and book reviews. The current issues relate to the life, earth, medical, and behavioral sciences, engineering, and agriculture. Some of the latest subjects dealt with were the the moon crust’s age, the Alaska pipeline, the prob- lems of population, and nuclear pollution. The readers of Science magazine are scientists and educated people who can understand scientific terms. Its appearance ‘THE PARAGRAPHappeals to both the eye and the hand. It is of medium size, printed in very clear lettering on smooth, first-rate paper. This fact may be one of the reasons for ita relatively high price: one dollar for each weekly issue. Another cause may be the fact thatit is not supported by advertisement. But considering the magazine's rich, interesting variety of subjects, the high price is justified. Shoshana Zachs, ‘ael) In my composition class I learn something every day. The about the clase is that it meets too early in the morning for me to get up. Tlike sleeping late each morning because Tdon't goto bed until 3 a.m: Before that I watch television, even though most of the programs aren't very interesti program comes on Tuesday evenings, but often I can’t watch it becan invites me to dinner. But I'mralways glad to eat with him because hi good cook. —— Exercise Decide which paragraph is about one idea. Ask yourself these questions: A. What is the main idea? B. Do all the sentences support the main idea? C. Do any of the sentences support some other idea? Basic Organization A paragraph consists of a topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence in the paragraph, and of four to eight sentences that support the controlling ideas. ‘These sentences should be arranged logically in one of several ways: 1. Chronological: According to logic in time “X-~ Moat stories are written from beginning to end. B. Most processes are described in time sequence: at the beginning will be the preparations, at the end the conclusions. C. Many cause-effect explanations must move from the first to the second to the third cause and then to the effects. 2. _ Spatial: According to logic in space 7 9 omnorthtosouth, pre forth, B. nal ition is spatial; separate cl “Gre presented from fe to right, from top to bottom. 3. Iny 2: From Jeast important point (or vice versa) that answer the question “Why?” usually discuss the answers in thi B. Written arguments sometimes present the least effective point first and save the most important point for the end of the argument. 9 THE PARAGRAPHWhen you construct a paragraph or an essay, you should consider your topic and then decide what the most effective organization pattern would be. By presenting the sentences of support logically, you will be able to communicate most successfully'with your reader. Subject and Topic Sussecr;,) A general area of interest A. Sports B, World Travel C. Education A subject that has been narrowed so that it can be covered thoroughly. 0 }w narrow a topic is depends on the assignment. Narrowing a subject to a topic can be compared to a wide angle camera lens that zooms in to focus on a ingle small flower. By focusing your attention on asmall part of the subject, you can narrow the subject to a restricted area that. you can cover in depth rather than superficially. In the examples below, the subjects have been narrowed. Sports =—=———— ee ie Thon Racing “= Olympic Shot-Putting Hiking Through Europe My First Trip Abroad ‘On Tour in Hawaii World Travel =— ___— Music in the Elementary School Education <== Open Classrooms vs. Traditional Clasarooms "— Foreign Students in U. 8. Universities Further narrowing of a topic can make the resulting paragraph even more interesting to the audience because a narrow topic forces the writer to be more specific, to show by example, fact, physical description, and personal experience rather than simply to ¢ell. Why I Play Soccer Soccer ——_—_—— Injuries Common in Soccer What Makes a Champion Soccer Player The Great Volcatio ~~ On Tour in Hawaii ee Ai "Kinds of Shells'6n Mai ‘Should Band Be Offered to Grade School Students? a —_ How to Get Elementary Schoo! Boys ‘Music in the Elementary School SX, doin the Choir ‘Square Dancing as a Technique of Teaching 10 THE PARAGRAPHEXERCISE Write a list of four paragraph topics that you know about and that would be interesting to your audience. The Topic Sentence For every topic, several different paragraphs can be constructed. Each of these paragraphs will have a topic sentence that will B. Bethe most general sentence in the paragraph ot Uy.-| © Bethe mast importansentencein the paragraph ur ny D. Contai ideas that the following sentences in the paragraph will -y a support pe Note: A controlling idea is a word or phrase that the reader can ask questions about: How? Why? In what ways? What does that mean? 4 .] A. Introduce the topic in the paragraph that is, the sentences will support or prove the topic sentence In the sentences below, the controlling ideas are circled, and the questions a reader could ask follow that topic sentence: Why? In what ways? 2. There are several(unn)uperstition}jin my country about(death). What are they? Why are they funny? 3. The most(erious problem in higher education)in Venezuela is the(growing ‘number af tudent)whe( ail couraes several med) Why is the problem so serious? How many students fail? What exactly makes this situation a problem? 4. Most(peoplé)have the(wrong idea)about the(definition of statistics) What is the wrong idea? What is the right definition? " THE PARAGRAPHExercise In the topic sentences below, circle the controlling ideas. Then write specific questions that the paragraph following each topic sentence might answer. P 1. There are differences in shape, color, and taste between the two most popular varieties of dates in Saudi Arabia. Questions: ee 2. One of the most recent technical advances in the use of water is the develop- ment of hydroelectric power. Questions: ee 3. The creativity of the preschool child can be developed with spegial activ- ities. SQuctions 4. Violence in the sport of hockey is destroying the quality of the game. Questions: — Rules for Writing the Topic Sentence 3) A topic sentence cannot be _a simple statement of fact because there are no controlling ideas that need developmentina fact. Examples of facts that are not topic sentences: — A. You can buy these socks at K-Mart for $1.98. B. We celebrate Christmas on December 25. Weaker topic sentences are often simple inion; the controlling idea in"Ilike” or “I think” is difficult Support Examples of simple statements of opinion that are weak topie sentences: A. Ican't help liking this book. B. I like dogs better than cats. C. Itis my opinion that smoking causes cancer. 3. ) A successful topic sentence usually contains an opinion that will be proved or supported in the paragraph, or a statement of intent that the writer will explain in detail in the paragraph. Examples of topic sentences that have an opinion or a statement of intent: Snakes make better pets than dogs or caty. Smoking can cause genetic defecte in an unborn child. Marathon racing is good for the soul as well as for the body. To see Europe on a mere $10 a day, try hiking. Building a room that utilizes passive solar energy can reduce heating costs. FDOp> EXeRCcIsE Read the following topic sentences. Indicate which of them would be suitable fora single paragraph, which might be competently written about in a single 12 THE PARAGRAPHessay, and which would funtion in an entire Book Circe the controlling ideas in the topic sentences that would be suitable for paragraphs. 1. Aspen is one of the most famous ski areas in the world. 2. The subject of International Relations has been considered in different ways throughout history. 3, Before readers begin a study of the Koran, they must bear in mind that it is a unique book, quite different from the books they usually read. 4, In northern Thailand there are people who prefer to live in the mountains rather than on the plains. ~~. Politics is a very-interesting subject. - ——~ - 6. My four-year-old aon is the most active child I have ever : 7. [have read mapy articles about unidentified flying objects (UFOs), but Ido not believe that UFOs exist. 8. The embryo transfer technique involves the transfer of a fertilized ovum from one animal to another of the aame species. 9. Reading can promote different kinds of pleasure and learning in society. 10. A favorite Thai food is rice and curry. 11. In Indonesia there have been so many different kinds of medicine adver- tised in the newspaper and on television that some people are confused about which medicine to take. 12. In my country there is a very funny superstition that is well known by all. 1. Which of the sentences above are simply facts? 2. Which sentences contain the opinion or statement of intent and the con- trolling ideas necessary for a true topic sentence? 3. Choose two of the sentences above that would be suitable topic sentences for paragraphs; then decide what questions would need to be answered in each paragraph. Choose three of the following subjects. Narrow each toa topic you could write a paragraph about. Then write a topic sentence for each topic. computers censorship _ advertising agriculture horses electronics nuclear power _ jewelry botany _“rewspapers adult education —_ dormitories skiing sportscars revolution space travel The following are sentence fragments that might become suitable topic sen THE PARAGRAPHtences for paragraphs if they are completed. Choose three and write a clear, complete topic sentence for each, 1, Teaching a child good manners 2. Learning to like English grammar 3. Toavoid an argument 4. To make elderly people happy 5. One of the most important steps in learning to drive 6, Three easy ways to get acquainted with strangers Paragraph Unity A unified paragraph (uni = one) will contain only sentences that explain or “support the general statement made in the topic sentence. Any sentence that does not relate to the main idea would not develop it. How does the reader (or the writer) determine whether or not a paragraph is unified? 1, Find and study the topic sentence.&g is often the first or second sentence in the paragraph. 2. The topic of the paragraph is stated in the topic sentence. It should be possible tocircle the words that tell what the paragraph is about. EXERCISE Read the following paragraph. Underline the topic sentence. Circle the words (the controlling ideas) in the topic sentence that tell what the paragraph is about. ‘The cabin I lived in was quite rustic by city standards—no heat, no running water—and I spent most of my time just coping with the necessities. There was a fine wood-burning stove in the living room, as well as a huge iron cooking stove in the kitchen. The combination of the two stoves kept the cabin quite warm, but it took a mountain of wood to fuel the two fires. This meant rising early in the day and spending all morning chopping wood. Dead wood was plentiful in that particular canyon, including two dead trees that were not too difficult to chop down and cut into small logs. Of course, there were days when it was impossible to go outside at all because of heavy snow, so I took care during the dry weather to chop a large pile of “emergency” wood. Water was no problem, as the cabin was beside a large river which ran all year. [At first, I set out some fish lines at night, but when most of the river froze, the only unfrozen water was too swift, so I had to abandon fishing. | Sometimes hauling water up the hill to the cabin was hard, especially when the path was snow-packed, making the footing very tricky. Terri Watson UWS) 14 THE PARAGRAPH15 By determining the controlling ideas found in the topic sentence, the reader (or the writer) can determine what the rest of the paragraph should be about. Then, by reading the paragraph closely, the reader can determine whether or not it is unified. Each sentence in a unified paragraph will be directly related to the topic sentence. Re-read the paragraph on page 14. Is each sentence that follows the topic sentence related to one or more of the controlling ideas in the topic sentence? Why does the bracketed—[ ]—sentence not belong in the paragraph? EXERCISE Read the two paragraphs below. Answer the questions that follow them. Then decide which is a unified paragraph. Considering the progress that has been made in medical technology, believing in a bionic man is not difficult. For years, surgeons have been replacing the calcified inner ear bones (stapes, incus, and malleus) with special metal wires that can restore hearing almost completely. Another incredible invention is the pace- maker, which, when implanted in the heart, causes the heart to beat regularly. If man can engineer an electrical device that is equivalent to something as compli- cated as the sinoatrial node of the heart, he should be able to design an arm or a leg. Contact lenses are another amazing example; a curved piece of plastic placed on the cornea over the pupil can improve vision significantly. More and more organs are being transplanted: livers, hearts, kidneys. With all this ingenious research, it will only be a matter of time before man can replace most malfunc- tioning organs and improve the paris of the body so that they function at accel- erated rates and enormous efficiency. The consequence: a bionic man. Cathy Christlieb Us.) We face many problems when we are flying through the air. One of these problems is the way people are made. We have lungs that are meant to breathe. That does not bother us as long as we stay in the air to breathe, but if we put our heads under water, we have trouble, because we cannot breathe water. We have to hold our breath, or use something which brings us air from the water’s surface. Issa Bugarsa (Saudi Arabia). Exercise 1, What is the topic sentence of the first paragraph? 2. What are the controlling ideas in the topic sentence? Circle them. 3. Are all the sentences in the paragraph related to the main idea in the topic sentence? THE PARAGRAPH4, Are there any sentences that do not belong? 5. What-is the topic sentence of the second paragraph? 6. What are the controlling ideas in the topic sentence? Circle them. 7. Are all the sentences in the paragraph about the main idea in the topic sentence? 8. Are there any sentences that don't belong? Why don't they fit? Read the following topic sentence and circle the controlling ideas: When a marriage ends in divorce, American social attitudes and laws place the burden of financial responsibility on the man. Below are ten sentences; select the sentences that develop the controlling ideas in the topic sentence above. Some of the sentences do not relate directly to the topic sentence. 1. California has recently set a legal precedent by which alimony was awarded to men. 2. Children of divorced parents usually cannot choose which parent they want to live with. 3. Discrimination exists in the matters of property and money; usually the man involved in the divorce loses both. 4, The Women’s Liberation Movement may be the key to societal change. 5. Men must also deal with the emotional impact of divorce. 6. Dividing property is the most unpleasant part of getting a divorce. 7. The ex-wife can continue to use any credit cards that were issued to the couple jointly, but only the ex-husband is responsible for credit-card debts! 8, Resentment often causes divorce. 9. The father’s right to have an equal part in the upbringing and education of the children is severely limited; usually he is only granted limited visiting privileges with his children, but is ordered to supply the money for their education and welfare. 10. The man must make payments on the car, the house, and perhaps the furniture, though he no longer has the use of these items. iH |. Paragraph Completeness A well-written paragraph is complete. The sentences that follow the topic sentatice explain or support the ideas stated in the topic sentence so well that the idea is thorot understood by the reader. 0 determine wl ier a paragraph is complete, look at the topic sentence. By identifying the controlling ideas in the topic sentence, you can decide what the paragraph should be about. Consider the following paragraphs: 16 THE PARAGRAPH iIt is hard for foreign student wives to be able to make many American friends since most of their husbands go to school full time while they have to stay at home taking care of the children and the house. This situation makes it almost impossi- ble for them to go out often and meet people. Furthermore, most of the foreign wives don’t speak English at all when they first come here, and this keeps them from having a conversation with an English speaker. Finally, foreign students usually live in student housing, and generally the Americans who live there go to school. In many cases, even if only the husband is going to school, the American wife will be working..Consequently, the American couple does not have time to socialize, and the foreign student wives have very few American friends. Carmen Ortiz (Venemela) In El Salvador, efficient technology using the limited natural resources that the country possesses has begun to provide sources of energy. For example, in recent years, Salvadoreans have built machinery from the remains of old cars, using their knowledge to create new methods of construction. In 1977, a machine that processes coffee grain almost without the intervention of human hands was invented. Now, work is being done to use the coffee’s pulp in place of gasoline for combustible energy. Another resource that is still not fully utilized is solar energy. However, there is some research and development in the universities to construct solar-operated water pumps. Also, the force of the wind has gained popularity, and possibly within the next two years this field will be much more developed. Contin- ued interest in the development of such new sources of energy will help to decrease the dependency of the country on foreign aid. Alfredo Chorro (EI Salvador) EXERCISE J. Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. Cirele the controlling ideas. 2. What should you, the reader, expect the paragraphs to be about? What questions will you expect to be answered in the paragraphs’ 3. What specific details make the paragraphs interesting for ee Which details do you remember after reading the paragraphs? 4. When you finished reading the paragraphs, did you understand the topic sentences? 5. Based on the information in the paragraphs, are the topic sentences valid? 6. Is each paragraph unified, that is, is each about one topic? 7 THE PARAGRAPHNote: You do not have to agree with the topic sentence, but if the paragraph is complete, the information should show you that the writer's point of view is worthwhile and clear. The Point Paragraph Each paragraph you write will contain a topic sentence and four to eight sentences that will support the topic sentence. These supporting sentences will be more specific than the topic sentence. Notice that the more specific ideas are indented. A diagram of a balanced, detailed paragraph looks like this: TOPIC SENTENCE (CONTROLLING IDEAS) A POINT NUMBER ONE | SPECIFIC DETAILS B POINT NUMBER TWO i SPECIFIC DETAILS C POINT NUMBER THREE SPECIFIC DETAILS CONCLUDING SENTENCE Example: General Riding a bicycle is preferable to driving a Topic car. Sentence A. It’s relatively inexpensive 1. tobuy. 2. to operate more B. It’shealthier C. It’s personally satisfying 1. enjoy the scenery 2. become part of nature specific 1. more exercise most 2. lesa pollution 5 specific General In all but the most inclement weather, the bicycle Concluding is a pleasurable means of transportation. Sentence Resulting paragraph: preferable to ely inexpensive to buy and to maintain. While a car may cost thousands of relat 18 THE PARAGRAPHdollars to buy and hundreds of dollars annually, a good bicycle will cost only a hundred dollars or so, and its annual maintenance cost is very small. Biking is also healthier; not only does the biker get more physical exercise than the driver, but bicycles are nonpolluting. The consequence is a person with strong legs and a strong heart whose bicycle helps keep the environment clean. Finally, bicycling is, unlike driving, personally satisfying. Instead of being a robot inside a machine, the biker pedals along, enjoying the scenery, becoming a part of nature. In all but the most inclement weather, the bicycle is a pleasurable means of transportation. Michele Eastman WS) EXERCISE Read the two paragraphs below. Then outline each paragraph according to the format for the point paragraph outline given on page 18. 1. Write the topic sentence of each paragraph. } 2, List the two to four main points given in each paragraph. \ 3. Undereach main point, list the specific details used to support each point. \ a octopus has excellent, humanlike eyesight; the eyes, like those of vertebrates, Have" ||. lids, irises, crystalline lenses, and retinas. When a predator appears, the orange- brown eyes, which are mobile and so can be turned in different directions, flash in the sea like the sun in the sky. Similarly amazing is the octopus’s facility for changing shape. Generally its favorite hiding place is a small cavity in a rock; the octopus, usually a round marine animal, can make itself entirely flat like an envelope or it can stretch itself like India rubber in order to enter the small crevice. This remarkable animal can also transform itself by changing color: white, black, and even red! The agents for these color changes are the chromatophores, the color cells; the octopus has two different kinds of cells, one for the dark colors and another for the light ones. Why does the octopus have all these transforming abilities? Because he has lost the protective shell of his ancestors and must therefore have alternative ways to survive in the sea. Annick Burkhalter (Switzerland) Chemical engineers interested in the environment are continually searching for ways to change useless waste products into precious energy; biotechnology is the most promising process. The basic problem of converting waste to energy by 19 THE PARAGRAPH In the minds of many people, the octopus is considered an animal of hell, g” devil-fish; however, for me this strange creature has amazing powers. First, heconventional processes is cost: the conversion involves much energy, many chemi- cals, and many difficult techniques, However, biotechnology, the use of biological organisms to break down the structure of waste, can be used to adapt a waste product to the energy process of converting sugars to alcohol. For example, wood chips, after being reduced in size, are heated in water. Then the cellulose is separated from the mixture of water and wood by the use'of a microorganism. Finally, fermentation, a form of biotechnology, is used to convert the cellulose sugars into alcohol. If the techniques for changing wood chips into energy can be perfected and used on a commercial scale, the entire ethanol market in the western states could be supplied by that single waste product. Jay Y. Lee (Korea) The Process of Writing a Paragraph 1. Choose the subject: be certain you know about what you write. Example: Studying Abroad I. Narrow to a topic that will be of interest to your audience: Examples: Advantages and Disadvantages of Being a University Student in the United States NS Problems of Living Alone while Studying ata University in'the United States wr Most Serious Problem of Living Alone while Studying at a University in the United States IIL. List some details about your topic. Examples: Having to clean the apartment Noone to wake me up in the morning Having to shop and cook for myself Missing classes because I don't keep a regular schedule Spending my money too quickly Having to do the laundry Loneliness Don’t get my studying completed—no one to discipline me IV. Limit the details to the most important ones you want to communicate. Example: housework { or } choose one ——® housework loneliness V. State the main idea of the paragraph in your topic sentence. Example: Since I began living in an apartment and going to 1, my biggest problem has been housework. 20 THE PARAGRAPHV1. The Point Paragraph Since becoming a student at a university in the United States| the most serious problem of living alone has been my housework. A. Cleaning the apartment 1. Takes away from my studies 2. Makes the apartment look nice Shopping for food Don’t know the English names time asking for help 3, Have to sit with the women VII. Write the paragraph, using the details you have listed. Since I began living in an apartment and going to school, my biggest prob- lem has been the housework. Cleaning the apartment is not too bad; although it takes time away from my studies, at least when I finish the apartment looks nice. Shopping for my food is more difficult because I don’t know the English names of many foods, and often I have to spend extra time asking for help. Cooking my food is a bigger problem. I have never had to cook before, and usually the results are discouraging. Sometimes the food is burned, sometimes it is not cooked enough, and sometimes I have not measured correctly, so the food tastes terrible. The worst problem is doing my laundry. The laundromat is far from my apartment, and I waste much valuable time. I also have trouble with the complicated instruc- tions, so occasionally I end up with pink socks or a shirt that is too small. Mostly I am embarrassed as I sit in the laundromat with all the women, and so I wait until all my clothes are dirty before I do this horrible task. dJeong-Shwu Liu (Taiwan) EXERCISE . Is this paragraph unified? . Is it complete? . Which sentence is the most general? . Which four main points are made in the paragraph? . Which sentences give specific detail to support the main points? pee a THE PARAGRAPHWrite a paragraph using the process above. I. Choose a subject you know ahout. 2. Narrow the subject to a topic you can develop in one paragraph. 3. List some details about the topic that would be of interest to your audience. 4. Limit the details to the most important ones you want to communicate. 5. State the main idea of the paragraph in your topic sentence. 6. List specific details to support the topic sentence. 2 THE PARAGRAPH:Techniques of Support The sentences that support a topic sentence may do so in a variety of ways, The iques you use will depend on the topic sentence and on your audience. lowe ichéver technique of support you use, the information you select must be specific. Study the techniques below. Then ask yourself, as you write a paragraph ‘1. Which technique would beat support my topic sentence? 4 AV 2. Which technique would best convince my audience that my topic sentence is valid? numbers statistics > ver, Lal Pres B+~ The following eee Aeve sped by facts: Hosea statistics, and other Pieces of information that can easily be verified. Based on the Recommended Daily Allowances set by the National Food and Nutrition Board, the basic fast-food meal in America provides adequate protein. The meals from McDonald's, Burger Chef, and Wendy’s—hamburger, french fries, and milkshake—provide more than two-thirds of the 56 grams of protein recom- 23 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORTmended per day for an adult male: 38 to 45 grams. However, halfof a ten-inch pizza from Pizza Hut was the protein champion. When ordered with cheese, sausage, mushrooms, pepperoni, onions, and green peppers, it provides 72 grams of protein and also contains less fat than any of the other meals. The least amount of protein is in a fish sandwich, fries, and cola meal from Arthur Treacher’s Fish and Chipe, but its 22 grams are still adequate. Jay Johnson ws.) to 1978, the economy of Korea grew by an impressive annual ible progress,.often referred to as the me of ss despite the country’s lack of S world, oil of 1973-1974. To put it concretely, GNP (Gross National Product) increased by ten times, and per capita income rose from $100 in the first year to $1200 last year. Korea’s export growth during the same period especially aroused the attention of both developed and developing nations. For example, Korea shipped only $50 million worth of goods to foreign markets in 1968, but by 1978 the exports increased 300 times to $15 billion. In fact, Korea is now one of the biggest exporters in the world and the world’s top exporter of consumer electronic products, textile garments, plywood, footwear, cement, and Jooh Lee (Korea) ~— Exerese =o or 1. Underline the topic sentences in the paragraphs above and circle the con- trolling ideas. . What are the facts given in the paragraphs? Are the paragraphs unified? Are the supporting sent graph about the topic sentence? |. Are the paragraphs complete? Is the information in each of sufficient for the reader to underaa ig sentence ' sedentng Setar et 5. Cl Cees see ak madehpoikt bitine for it. -» op Note: Using facts to support a topic sentence requires that the writer be certain that the facts are accurate and relevant; using an authoritative source for your facts can make your support more believable to your reader. In the paragraphs above, what authoritative sources are mentioned? 24 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORTPhysical Description The five senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—ofige writers a source of detail about the world around them. 1, Sight: shape—round, square, flat color—red, blue, green light—bright, dark Sound: quality—clear or muffled, loud or soft Smell: quality—sharp, sweet, clean, fresh effect —suffocating, intoxicating Taste: quality—bitter, flat, sweet, sour Touch: texture—smooth, rough, sharp, dull temperature—hot, cold, lukewarm weight—heavy, light oe oS Writers can also compare one sense with another to communicate impres- sions to the reader. 1. Sight: The fat lady looked exactly like a beach ball in that multicolored cape. 2. Sound: Sitting in the house trailer, we thought the heavy rain sounded like a thousand ping-pong balls as it fell on the tin roof. 3, Smell: In the humid summer the dirty apartment smelled like a dead gost. 4. Taste: The strange fruit tasted like a sour cucumber. 5. Touch: The kitten licked my hand; her tongue felt like sandpaper. EXERCISE Read the paragraphs below. Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. Circle the words or phrases of physical description. Once I went hiking with a group from my school to the mountains near Riyadh. Before we started the hike, the sunlight was shining brightly. When we went into the woods it was quite dark like the sun was no longer in the sky. We felt that we were walking in hallways because the trees were so big and tall thajgbey prevented sunlight from coming through. It was absolutely quiet and silent like a sad and grim night. In the distance we heard some birds cackling and some turkeys gobbling as if they didn’t want us to be in this place. Also small brooks were bubbling here and there. Although the weather was extremely hot, the water of the brooks was almost too cold to touch. After hiking four miles, we became exceed ingly tired. We felt that we had accomplished a great journey. Shams Othman (Saudi Arabia) Whenever | goto my parents’ house in Mendoza, Argentina, I remember a lot of pleasant moments of my childhood. A few days before coming to the U'S., I left 25. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORTmy three sons in my parents’ house for a visit. When I returned, it was dinner time. Topened the front door and smelled an aroma which transported me to my infancy. My mother was sitting in the dining room feeding my sons with only one dish and one fork while she narrated a story just aa she had done with me and my brothers so many years before. I climbed the gray granite stairs to the bedroom I had shared with my youngest brother. From the window I could still see the brook with clear water which descends from the snowy mountains. I could also see the big tree in which I had built a little house for hiding when I needed solitude. The wardrobe that held secret surprises, the mirror with the old photos, the double bed where we had taken shelter on a stormy night: all was like it had been before. I went down. “the stairs and the children’s laughter made me come back to reality. We left the house, and when we were in the curve of the road, I turned round my head to see the house trimmed against the sunset. This was my last view ofmy parents’ house, and even now, at this distance, it is that which unchains my memories. Ricardo Leiva (Argentina) Note: Using physical description to support a topic sentence requires that writers. be precise in their choice of words. Using precisely the right word to describe or explain a point to your readers is often difficult. Your word choice will affect your readers’ responses as well aa their understanding. Successful written communication is based on word choice. A general or vague term will often confuse rather than clarify the point. To practice precision in diction, and to expand your vocabulary 1. Use a dictionary to check the exact denotation, i.e., the meaning of the word you want to use. 2. Use a thesaurus (a dictionary of synonyms) that not only gives the synonyms of words, but also gives information concerning the different shades of meaning. Synonyms can have slightly different meanings, meanings that have slightly different connotations, ie., associative meanings.* EXERCISE Examine each of the following sets of words. Decide whether the synonyms have a positive or negative connotation. Which words have masculine or feminine connotations? Which words are formal? Which are colloquial? A. Intelligent: clever, smart, shrewd, ingenious, knowing B. Love: admire, cherish, approve, idolize, respect *For additional work on precision in diction, eee the exercises in Chapter 13. 2 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORTC. Distasteful: repugnant, repellent, abhorrent, obnoxious D. Pale: pallid, ashen, wan What connotations (associative responses) do these words hold for you? A. red B. Mary C, politician D. New York City E. capitalist Example Supporting a topic sentence by the use of examples often makes a general statement understandable on a more concrete level. How many examples are enough? In the first paragraph below, a single typical example, thoroughly explained, may be sufficient. In the second para- graph, several examples support the topic sentence effectively. The assumption that children of divorced parents prefer to remain with their mother, and indeed that the mother wants them, may oftentimes be false. For instance, one divorced man exhausted the courts, the lawyers, his finances, and himself while attempting to regain custody of his four children. The mother had been an alcoholic and had shown little interest in the children’s welfare even prior to the divorce, yet it was not until the children reached their teens that their custody was reconsidered. The drug and truancy problems of these youngsters were brought to the attention of the juvenile judge, who discovered that they had been unhappy at home for some time. Their love for their mother had long since disappeared, and they asked to be placed with their father, so after seven years the custody error was rectified. Undoubtedly, there are many similar cases which have not been resolved. While the child custody laws seem fair in theory, they are not always fair in practice. Roberta Scott Ww.S.) Agrarian reform in Venezuela has had positive and negative effects on agriculture. For example, some farmers have obtained loans from the government which they have invested in their land. Many of these farmers have bought machines to work on their land. They have cultivated the land very fast. Therefore, they have already obtained benefit from their land, and Venezuela has too. But many farmers have not spent the loan money on their land. Instead, they have 27 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORTbought houses or cars, and the majority have used this money to go to the capital because they want to live there. The result is that many farms are abandoned, and nobody wants to cultivate them. Morella Andrade (Venezuela) Exercise 1, Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph above. Circle the con- trolling ideas. 2, What specific examples are given in each paragraph? 3, Make a point outline for the second paragraph. Choose one of the topic sentences below and write a paragraph, using examples to develop the idea. Remember to prewrite, to select and list examples before you write, and to have enough examples to support the topic sentence. 1, Dormitory food is limited and dull. 2, My friend occasionally dresses (or acts) very strangely. 8, Writing in English requires different skills than speaking in English. 4. Select a topic of your choice. Personal Experience Sometimes the most effective way to develop a paragraph is an illustrative story. By telling the reader a brief story of an actual incident that supporta the general statement, you strengthen and support the topic sentence. In the para- graphs below, the writers use personal experiences to support their topic sen- tences. The reason I don’t drink whiskey very often is because I had a bad experience with it. Eight months ago, I went drinking with my friends after a graduation ceremony at my university in Japan. The day was our last day as students. Everyone was aware that we wouldn't be able to meet each other after this day, so everybody was going to enjoy this night drinking liquor. While reminiscing about our university times, I drank considerable whiskey. When I started to go home with some friends, I became aware that I had drunk too much. I don’t remember anything about getting home. On the following day, my friends said that I fell from the train platform when I was walking at the edge of it. At just that time, a train ‘was coming to that platform, so my friends tried to help me, but they couldn’t help because they were also drunk. I asked why I was living now. Their response was 2B TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT29 that the train came to the opposite side of the platform, I swore not to drink too much after I heard this story. Hiro Yabuki (Japan) Why don’t I like plays? When I was only 12 years old there was a play shown about the Algerian revolution during French Colonialism. That was a time in my . country’s history when the French stayed in Algeria for 130 years. The play was written about a true story and was written by a French reporter who lived with the French army in Algeria. The play was about what the French did with the Algerian people until the liberation. In the middle of the play, we saw two French soldiers coming out of a tavern. They went into the street, really drunk. Suddenly, they met an Algerian woman who was pregnant. One of them said, “I bet she hasa baby boy.” The other said, “No, I swear it is a girl.” Then, after an argument, they bet some francs and followed the woman. They caught her, and one of them took a dagger and pushed it into her belly. How cruel it was! I really could not stand the sight, and went out of the theat 4 swearing not to see any more plays in my life. YY? ant hgxe roy eogxy, pte: When using personal experience, writers must decide how much detail is rx, Analyzing the unity is often the key. Only those details that pic sentence are essential. In the paragraph above, [oF example, what the writer wore to the play, who else attended the play, or who the actors were would not be necessary to support the topie sentence. —— EXERCISE en") 1. Ineach of these paragraphs, A the persol ryence support the maiY idea of the paragraph? Un, Log S 2j Are perepny letajls that do not rdlate direct) hettanhna Reo vel ME support for pe main idea? Choose a subject, Nabe Pro a Gtk ahd write a paragraph using personal expertence to support your topic seritence. Make a list of details you might use in the paragraph, and select only the details that relate directly tu the topic sentence. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT