The Origins and Foundation of Sociology

INTRO: Sociology is the study of human social life. As human social life is so expansive,
sociology has many sub-sections of study, ranging from the analysis of conversations to the
development of theories to try to understand how the entire world works. The origin of
sociology is traced back to the ancient Greeks. From the ancient age, sociology has made a
significant journey of evolution to reach at this stage today.

ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY: Proto-sociological observations are to be found in the founding

texts of Western philosophy, as well as in the non-European thought of figures such as
Confucius. The characteristic trends in the sociological thinking of the ancient Greeks can be
traced back to their social environment. Because there was rarely any extensive or highly
centralised political organisation within states this allowed the tribal spirit of localism and
provincialism to have free play. This tribal spirit of localism and provincialism pervaded most
of the Greek thinking upon social phenomena.

There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century. Some consider in
Khaldun, a 14th-century Tunisian, Arab, Islamic scholar from North Africa, to have been the
first sociologist and father of sociology; his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to
advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict. Concerning the
discipline of sociology, he conceived a dynamic theory of history that involved
conceptualisations of social conflict and social change. He developed the dichotomy of
sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a "generation", and the
inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city.

The term "Sociologie" was first coined by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès;
[Latin: socius, "companion",; and the suffix -ology, "the study of"]. In 1838, the French
thinker Auguste Comte ultimately gave sociology the definition that it holds today.

Saint-Simon published “Physiologie Sociale” in 1813 and devoted much of his time to
the prospect that human society could be steered toward progress if scientists would
form an international assembly to influence its course.

Writing after the original Enlightenment and influenced by the work of Saint-Simon, political
philosopher of social contract, Auguste Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind
through the scientific understanding of the social realm. His own sociological scheme was
typical of the 19th-century humanists; he believed all human life passed through distinct
historical stages and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies
for social ills. Sociology was to be the "queen science" in Comte's schema. Auguste Comte
was so impressed with his theory of positivism that he referred to it as "the great discovery
of the year 1822.
FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY: Formal institutionalisation of sociology as an academic
discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first French department of sociology at
the University of Bordeaux in 1895.A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first
time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, drawing upon the thought of
Comte and Herbert Spencer.In 1890, the oldest continuing sociology course in the United
States began at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank Blackmar. American sociology
arose on a broadly independent trajectory to European sociology.

The University of Chicago developed the major sociologists at the time. It brought them
together, and even gave them a hub and a network to link all the leading sociologists. In
1925, The University of Chicago decided to go into an entirely different direction and their
sociology department directed their attention to the individual and promoted equal rights.
Their concentration was small groups and discoveries of the individual's relationship to
society.

The first sociology department in the United Kingdom was founded at the London School of
Economics in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the
Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber, who had established a new anti
positivist sociology.

Comte had very vigorous guidelines for a theory to be considered positivism. Durkheim
endeavoured to apply sociological findings in the pursuit of political reform and social
solidarity. Today, scholarly accounts of Durkheim's positivism may be vulnerable to
exaggeration and oversimplification.

At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists formally
introduced methodological anti positivism, proposing that research should concentrate
on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a subjective
perspective.

CONCLUSION: Although sociology emerged in Comte's vision of sociology eventually

subsuming all other areas of scientific inquiry, sociology did not replace the other sciences.
Instead, sociology has developed a particular niche in the study of social life.

Sociology: A conceptual paradigm.

-Sociology is the study of society

-A social science involving the study of the social lives of people, groups, and societies.
-Sociology is the scientific study of social behaviour, including its origins, development,
organisation, and institutions. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to-develop a body of knowledge about social order, social
disorder and social change.
-Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology's subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies.
» Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology's purpose of
understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by
surrounding cultural and social structures.
-Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyses and explains important
matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world.
->At the personal level, sociology investigates the social causes and consequences of such
things as romantic love, racial and gender identity, family conflict, deviant behaviour, aging,
and religious faith.
->At the societal level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty
and wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms, urban
community, and social movements.
->At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as population growth and
migration, war and peace, and economic development.
-Sociologists emphasise the careful gathering and analysis of evidence about social life to
develop and enrich our understanding of key social processes. The research methods
sociologists use are varied. Sociologists observe the everyday life of groups, conduct large-
scale surveys, interpret historical documents, analyse census data, study video-taped
interactions, interview participants of groups, and conduct laboratory experiments.
->Students who have been well trained in sociology know how to think critically about
human social life and how to ask important research questions. They know how to design
good social research projects, carefully collect and analyse empirical data, and formulate
and present their research findings. Students trained in sociology also know how to help
others understand the way the social world works and how it might be changed for the
better. Most generally, they have learned how to think, evaluate, and communicate clearly,
creatively, and effectively. These are all abilities of tremendous value in a wide variety of
vocational callings and professions.

Origins

->Social analysis has origins in the common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy,
and has been carried out from as far back as the time of ancient Greek philosopher Plato, if
not before. The origin of the survey, i.e., the collection of information from a sample of
individuals, can be traced back to at least the Domesday Book in 1086, while ancient
philosophers such as Confucius wrote on the importance of social roles. There is evidence of
early sociology in medieval Islam. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab Islamic
scholar from North Africa (Tunisia), to have been the first sociologist and father of sociology
(see Early Islamic philosophy branches); his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to
advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.
->The word sociology (or "Sociologie") is derived from both Latin and Greek origins. The
Latin word: socius, "companion"; the suffix -logy, "the study of" from Greek-2oyta from
2óyos, lógos, "word", "knowledge"
->It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836) in
an unpublished manuscript.
->Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste
Comte (1798-1857), in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at
society. Comte had earlier used the term "social physics", but that had subsequently been
appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet.

Foundations of the academic discipline

Formal academic sociology was established by Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), who developed
positivism as a foundation to practical social, research. While Durkheim rejected much of
the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the
social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human
activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach
to causality. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of
Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method (1895). For Durkheim,
sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their
functioning". Durkheim' monograph, Suicide (1897) is considered a seminal work in
statistical analysis by contemporary sociologists,

Scope

Culture
While, cultural sociology sees all social phenomena as inherently cultural. Sociology of
culture often attempts to explain certain cultural phenomena as a product of social
processes, while cultural sociology sees culture as a potential explanation of social
phenomena.

Art, music and literature

Sociology of literature, film, and art is a subset of the sociology of culture. This field studies
the social production of artistic objects and its social implications. None of the founding
fathers of sociology produced a detailed study of art, but they did develop ideas that were
subsequently applied to literature by others.

Criminality, deviance, law and punishment

Criminologists analyse the nature, causes, and control of criminal activity, drawing upon
methods across sociology, psychology, and the behavioural sciences. The sociology of
deviance focuses on actions or behaviours that violate norms, including both formally
enacted rules (e.g., crime) and informal violations of cultural norms.

Sociology of law
The study of law played a significant role in the formation of classical sociology. Durkheim
famously described law as the "visible symbol" of social solidarity. The sociology of law
refers to both a sub-discipline of sociology and an approach within the field of legal studies.
Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with other
aspects of society, such as the development of legal institutions and the effect of laws on
social change and vice versa. For example, an influential recent work in the field relies on
statistical analyses to argue that the increase in incarceration in the US over the last 30
years is due to changes in law and policing and not to an increase in crime; and that this
increase significantly contributes to maintaining racial stratification.
Communications and information technologies
The sociology of communications and information technologies includes "the social aspects
of computing, the Internet, new media, computer networks, and other communication and
information technologies".

Media
As with cultural studies, media study is a distinct discipline that owes to the convergence of
sociology and other social sciences and humanities, in particular, literary criticism and
critical theory. Though the production process or the critique of aesthetic forms is not in the
remit of sociologists, analyses of socializing factors, such as ideological effects and audience
reception, stem from sociological theory and method. Thus the 'sociology of the media' is
not a sub discipline, but the media is a common and often-indispensable topic.

Economic sociology
Economic sociology arose as a new approach to the analysis of economic phenomena,
emphasising class relations and modernity as a philosophical concept. The relationship
between capitalism and modernity is a salient issue,perhaps best demonstrated in Weber's
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) and Simmel's The Philosophy of
Money (1900). The contemporary period of economic sociology, also known as new
economic sociology, was consolidated by the 1985 work of Mark Granovetter titled
"Economic Action and Social Structure;

Work, employment, and industry

The sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines "the direction and implications of
trends in technological change, globalisation, labour markets, work organisation, managerial
practices and employment relations to the extent to which these trends are intimately
related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing
experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make
their own contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions."

Education
The sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions determine social
structures, experiences, and other outcomes. It is particularly concerned with the schooling
systems of modern industrial societies. A classic 1966 study in this field by James Coleman,
known as the "Coleman Report", analysed the performance of over 150,006 students and
found that student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in
determining educational outcomes than are measured differences in school resources (i.e.
per pupil spending).

Environment
Environmental sociology is the study of human interactions with the natural environment,
typically emphasizing human dimensions of environmental problems, social impacts of
those problems, and efforts to resolve them. As with other sub fields of sociology,
scholarship in environmental sociology may be at one or multiple levels of analysis, from
global (e.g. world-systems) to local, societal to individual. Attention is paid also to the
processes by which environmental problems become defined and known to humans. As
argued by notable environmental sociologist John Bellamy Foster, the predecessor to
modern environmental sociology is Marx's analysis of the metabolic rift, which influenced
contemporary thought on sustainability. Environmental sociology is often interdisciplinary
and overlaps with the sociology of risk, rural sociology and the sociology of disaster.

Human ecology
Human ecology deals with interdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and
their natural, social, and built environments. In addition to Environmental sociology, this
field overlaps with architectural sociology, urban sociology, and to some extent visual
sociology. In turn, visual sociology-~-which is concerned with all visual dimensions of social
life overlaps with media studies in that it utilizes photography, film and other technologies
of media.

Family, gender, and sexuality

Family, gender and sexuality form a broad area of inquiry studied in many sub-fields of
sociology. The sociology of the family examines the family, as an institution and unit of
socialisation, with special concern for the comparatively modern historical emergence of the
nuclear family and its distinct gender roles. The notion of "childhood" is also significant. As
one of the more basic institutions to which one may apply sociological perspectives, the
sociology of the family is a common component on introductory academic curricula.
Feminist sociology, on the other hand, is a normative sub-field that observes and critiques
the cultural categories of gender and sexuality, particularly with respect to power and
inequality.

Health, illness, and the body

The sociology of health and illness focuses on the social effects of, and public attitudes
toward, illnesses, diseases, mental health and disabilities. This sub-field also overlaps with
gerontology and the study of the ageing process. Medical sociology, by contrast, focuses on
the inner-workings of medical organisations and clinical institutions. In Britain, sociology was
introduced into the medical curriculum following the Good enough Report (1944).

Death, dying, bereavement

A subfield of the sociology of health and illness that overlaps with cultural sociology is the
study of death, dying and bereavement, sometimes referred to broadly as the sociology of
death. This topic is exemplified by the work of Douglas Davies and Michael C. Kearl.

Knowledge and science

The sociology of knowledge is the study of the relationship between human thought and the
social context within which it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have on societies.
The term first came into widespread use in the 1920s, when a number of German-speaking
theorists, most notably Max Scheler, and Karl Mannheim, wrote extensively on it. With the
dominance of functionalism through the middle years of the 20th century, the sociology of
knowledge tended to remain on the periphery of mainstream sociological thought.
Peace, war, and conflict
This subfield of sociology studies, broadly, the dynamics of war, conflict resolution, peace
movements, war refugees, conflict resolution and military institutions. As a subset of this
subfield, military sociology aims toward the systematic study of the military as a social group
rather than as an organisation. It is a highly specialized sub-field which examines issues
related to service personnel as a distinct group with coerced collective action based on
shared interests linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes and values that
are more defined and narrow than within civil society. Military sociology also concerns
civilian-military relations and interactions between other groups or governmental agencies.
Topics include the dominant assumptions held by those in the military, changes in military
members' willingness to fight, military unionization, military professionalism, the increased
utilization of women, the military industrial-academic complex, the military's dependence
on research, and the institutional and organizational structure of military.

Political sociology
Historically political sociology concerned the relations between political organisation and
society. A typical research question in this area might be: "Why do so few American citizens
choose to vote?" In this respect questions of political opinion formation brought about
some of the pioneering uses of statistical survey research by Paul Lazarsfeld . A major
subfield of political sociology developed in relation to such questions, which draws on
comparative history to analyse socio-political trends.

Population and demography

Demographers or sociologists of population study the size, composition and change over
time of a given population. Demographers study how these characteristics impact, or are
impacted by, various social, economic or political systems. The study of population is also
closely related to human ecology and environmental sociology, which studies a populations
relationship with the surrounding environment and often overlaps with urban or rural
sociology. Researchers in this field may study the movement of populations: transportation,
migrations, diaspora, etc., which
falls into the subfield known as Mobilities studies and is closely related to human
geography. Demographers may also study spread of disease within a given population or
epidemiology.

Race and ethnic relations

The sociology of race and of ethnic relations is the area of the discipline that studies the
social, political, and economic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society.
This area encompasses the study of racism, residential segregation, and other complex
social processes between different racial and ethnic groups. This research frequently
interacts with other areas of sociology such as stratification and social psychology, as well as
with postcolonial theory. At the level of political policy, ethnic relations are discussed in
terms of either assimilationism or multiculturalism. Anti-racism forms another style of
policy, particularly popular in the 1960s and 70s.
Religion
The sociology of religion concerns the practices, historical backgrounds, developments,
universal themes and roles of religion in society. There is particular emphasis on the
recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of
religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that sociologists do not set out to
assess the validity of religious truth-claims, instead assuming what Peter L. Berger has
described as a position of "methodological atheism". It may be said that the modern formal
discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide
rates among Roman Catholic and Protestant populations.

Social change and development

The sociology of change and development attempts to understand how societies develop
and how they can be changed. Within this field, sociologists often use macro-sociological
methods or historical-comparative methods. In contemporary studies of social change,
there is overlaps with international development or community development. However,
most of the founders of sociology had theories of social change based on their study of
history.

Basic Concepts relating to Sociology

SOCIETY: humanly created organization or system of interrelationships that
connects individuals in a common culture. All the products of human
interaction, the experience of living with others around us. Humans create
their interactions, and once created the products of those interactions has the ability or
power to act back upon humans to determine or constrain action. Often, we experience
society (humanly created organization) as something apart from the individuals and
interactions that create it.

Community:
->A community is a social unit of any size that shares common values. Although embodied
or face-to-face communities are usually small, larger or more extended communities such as
a national community, international community and virtual community are also studied.
->A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in
common.

Difference between Community and Society

1)Society is a web of social relationships. It includes every relationship which established
among the people. This social relationship may be direct or (ndig organised or unorganized,
conscious or unconscious, But community consists group of individuals.
2)A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. It is universal and pervasive; but,
a definite geographical-area is essential for a community.
3)Community Sentiment or a sense of "we feeling" is not essential in a society; community
sentiment is indispensable for a community. There can be no community in the absence of
community sentiment.
CULTURE: sets of traditions, rules, symbols that shape and are enacted as feelings, thoughts,
and behaviours of groups of people. Referring primarily to be learned behaviour as distinct
from that which is given by nature, or biology, culture has been used to designate
everything that is humanly produced (habits, beliefs, arts, and artifacts) and passed from
one generation to another. In this formulation, culture is distinguished from nature, and
distinguishes one society from another.
LANGUAGE: a system of verbal symbols through which humans communicate ideas,
feelings, experiences. Through language these can be accumulated and transmitted across
generations. Language is not only a tool, or a means of
expression, but it also structures and shapes our experiences of the world and what we see
around us.
VALUES: preferences- ideas people share about what is good, bad, desirable, undesirable.
These are usually very general, abstract, cut across variations in situations.
NORMS: concepts and behaviours that constitute the normal. Behavioural rules or
standards for social interaction. These often derive from values but also contradict values;
sometimes derives from statistical norms but often not. Serve as both guides and criticisms
for individual behaviour. Norms establish expectations that shape interaction.
INSTITUTIONS: patterns of activity reproduced across time and space. Practices that are
regularly and continuously repeated. Institutions often concern basic living arrangements
that human beings work out in the interactions with one another and by means of which
continuity is achieved across generations. The
basic building blocks of societies.
STATUS: socially detained niches, positions (student, professor, administrator).
ROLE: every status carries a cluster of expected behaviours, how a person in that status is
expected to think, feel, as well as expectations about how they should be treated by others.
The cluster of expected duties and behaviours that has become fixed in a consistent and
reiterated pattern of conduct.
GROUP: two or more people regularly interacting on the basis of shared expectations of
others' behaviour; interrelated statuses and roles.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE: Structure refers to the pattern within culture and organization through
which social action takes pice; arrangements of roles, organizations, institutions, and
cultural symbols that are stable over time, often unnoticed, and a changing almost invisibly.
Structure both enables and constrains what is possible in social life. If a building were a
society, the foundation, supporting columns, and beams would be the structure which both
constrains and enables the various.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: the division of people socio-economically into layers or strata.
When we talk of social stratification, we draw attention into the unequal positions occupied
by individuals in society. In the larger traditional
societies and in industrialized countries today there is stratification in terms of wealth,
property, and access to material goods and cultural products.
RACE: A human group that defines itself and/or is defined by other groups as different...by
virtue of innate and immutable physical characteristics. It is a group that is socially defined
on the bases of physical criteria,
ETHNICITY: cultural practices and outlooks of a given community of people that set them
apart from others. Members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally distinct from
other groups in a society, and are seen by those others to be so in return. Many different
characteristics may distinguish ethnic groups from one another but the most usual are
language, history or ancestry - real or imagined, religion, and styles of dress of adornment.
Ethnic differences are wholly learned.
Heredity:
The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to
another.
->Why do children look like their parents?
->Why do brothers and sisters resemblance with each other?
->This is because we "inherit' traits from parents.
->The passing of traits from parents to child is the basis of heredity.
Social Inequality:
Social inequality refers to the ways in which socially-defined categories of persons
(according to characteristics such as gender, age, 'class' and ethnicity) are differentially
positioned with regard to access to a variety of social *goods', such as the labour market
and other sources of income, the education and healthcare systems, and forms of political
representation and participation. These and other forms of social inequality are shaped by a
range of structural factors, such as geographical location or citizenship status, and are often
underpinned by cultural discourses and identities defining, for example, whether the poor
are 'deserving' or 'undeserving'.
Social Change: refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may
include changes in mature, social institutions, social behaviours, or social relations.
Social Reform:
À reform movement is a kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or
change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid Or
fundamental changes. A reform movement distinguished from more radical social
movements such as revolutionary movements.
Development: an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation.
Social Development: Harmonised political and social changed and those changes must be
planned.
Sustainable Development: Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It contains within it two key concepts:
Poverty:
Condition where people's basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter are not being met.
Poverty is two types:
(1) Absolute poverty is synonymous with destitution and occurs when people cannot
obtain adequate resources (measured in terms of calories or nutrition) to support
minimum level of physical health. Absolute poverty means about the same
everywhere, and can be eradicated level of some countries.
(2) Relative poverty occurs when as demonstrated by people do not enjoy a certain
minimum level of living
standards as determined by a government (and enjoyed by the bulk of the population) that
vary from country to country, sometimes within the same country. Relative poverty occurs
everywhere, is said to be increasing, and may never be eradicated.
Unemployment
Unemployment occurs when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to
find work. Unemployment is often used as a measure of the health of the economy. The
most frequently cited measure of unemployment unemployment rate. This is the number of
unemployed persons divided by the number of people in the labor force.
Social Welfare
“is the organized system of social services and institutions, designed to aid individuals and
groups to attain satisfying standards of life and health, and personal and social relationships
that permit them to develop their full capacities and to promote their well being in harmony
with the needs of their families and the community."
Social Security
By social security we understand a program of protection provided by society against those
contingencies of modern life-Sickness, unemployment, old-age, dependency, industrial
accidents and invalidism against which the individual cannot be expected to protect himself
and his family bv his own ability
or foresight.
3 categories of social security:
->SocialAssistance
->Social Service
->Social Insurance
Social policy: is a term which is applied to various areas of policy, usually within a
governmental or political setting (such the welfare state and study of social services). It can
refer to guidelines, principles, legislation and activities that affect the living conditions
conducive to human welfare, such as a person's quality of life.
Empowerment:
Sociological empowerment often addresses members of groups that social discrimination
processes have excluded from decision-making
processes through - for example - discrimination based on disability, race,
ethnicity, religion, or gender. Empowerment as a methodology is often associated with
feminism: see consciousness-raising.
Gender equality, also known as sex equality, gender egalitarianism, sexual equality or
equality of the genders, is the view that men and women should receive equal treatment,
and should not be discriminated against based on gender.
Empathy vs. Sympathy
Empathy is the ability to experience the feelings of another person. It goes beyond
sympathy, which is caring and understanding for the suffering of others. Both words are
used similarly and often interchangeably (incorrectly so) but differ subtly in their emotional
meaning.
Basic Needs
"Basic needs" refers to those fundamental requirements that serve as the foundation for
survival. Access to the basic needs of life, including shelter, food, and clothing necessary to
the development or a strong community and a necessary precursor to individual self-
sufficiency.
Fundamental Rights
Fundamental rights are a generally regarded set of legal protections in the context of a legal
system, wherein such system is itself based upon this same set of basic, fundamental, Or
inalienable rights. Such rights thus belong without presumption or cost of privilege to all
human beings under such jurisdiction. The concept of human rights has been promoted as a
legal concept in large part owing to the idea that human beings have such
"fundamental" rights, such that transcend jurisdiction, but are typically reinforced in
different ways and with different emphasis within different legal systems. Human rights are
rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, colour, ,religion, language, or any other status. We are all equally
entitled to our human rights without discrimination, These rights are all interrelated,
interdependent and indivisible.
Social Legislation: Bill-Law/Act-Code, Ordinance, Order etc,
In capitalist countries, the aggregate of legal norms regulating the conditions of hired
workers and measures to assist persons without means of support. The principal elements
of social legislation are labor laws and social security. Along with laws reflecting the gains of
the working class, social legislation also includes antilabor laws. In Soviet books on law, the
term "bourgeois social legislation" is sometimes used to designate only the aggregate of
legal norms that protect the later of the proletariat, in contrast to antilaboraws. In
bourgeois legislation, progressive social norms are closely associated with reactionary
antilabor laws.
Profession and OccupationThe words occupation and profession are interchangeable.
Profession and occupation are almost the same with
only minor differences between them. The difference between Occupation and profession
can be stated with a simple example: Designing a building would be called a profession,
whereas, constructing a building is an occupation. A profession needs extensive training and
specialised knowledge.On the other hand, an occupation does not need any extensive
training. A person with an occupation need not have specialised knowledge of his trade.
Social Taboo:
Social taboo is, a practice, habit, object or any material or abstract thing that is not in
conformity with accepted practice in that society and hence discouraged
By the members of that society, community, etc. It would depend on various things such as
country, language denomination, ethnic differences, or generally how orthodox or
unorthodox the majority of those societies are. For instance, in the Asian countries, even in
2008. Smoking or taking alcohol in public places is considered taboo. Men shaking hands
with women is considered a taboo by the Moslem countries. Marrying outside one's caste is
still considered a taboo in India and in some of the south East Asian countries.