Unit 1

Further uses of the Present Continuous Tense.

The Present Continuous is used when we talk about something which is happening now (or around
now).

🌟 1. actions happening at the moment of speaking (now, at the moment)

♦️Peter is reading a book now

♦️She's listening to the radio.

🌟 2. fixed plans or arrangements in the near future

♦️She is going to Basel on Saturday.

🌟 3. temporary actions

♦️His father is working in Rome this month.

► Verbs that express states are normally not used with the Present Progressive. If they are used, watch
the difference in meaning.

♦️They love being together. (They are not together now.)

♦️They are loving being together. (They are together now.)

🌟 4. actions happening around the moment of speaking (longer actions)

♦️My friend is preparing for his exams.

🌟 5. trends

♦️More and more people are using their computers to listen to music.

🌟 6. repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker (especially with always, constantly, forever)

♦️Andrew is always coming late. (I don't like this.)

Unit 2
Further reading on the uses of the Simple Present Tense

🌟 1. repeated actions (every day, always, often, sometimes, never)

♦️My friend often draws nice posters.

♦️I never drink orange juice.

🌟 2. things in general

♦️Honey is sweet.

♦️Cats drink milk.

🌟 3. fixed timetables, scheduled events

♦️The plane flies to London every Monday.

♦️We have English lessons on Tuesdays and Fridays.

4. sequence of actions in the present (first – then, after that) First I get up, then I have breakfast.
♦️

♦️After school I switch on my computer, then I check my emails and after that I play my favourite game.

🌟 5. instructions

♦️Open your books at page 34.

♦️Don't shout at me!

🌟 6. with special verbs – which are normally not used with the Present Progressive (These verbs express
states, possessions, feelings etc.) be, believe, belong, hate, hear, like, love, mean, prefer, remain, realize,
see, seem, smell, think, understand, want, wish

♦️He doesn't like fish.

♦️She believes in life after death.

🌟 7. In exclamatory sentences beginning with "here" and "there"

♦️Here goes your husband!

♦️Here comes the bus!

🌟 8. in broadcast commentaries
In broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the simple present tense is used instead of the present
continuous tense to talk about activities in progress.

♦️He catches the ball.

Unit-3 Present Continuous and Present Simple 1

Further reading on the uses of the Simple Present Tense

🌟We use the Present Simple Tense when we want to talk about fixed habits or routines – things that
don’t change. (permenent situation)

♦️I live in the countryside. (Permanently / in general / all the time / this action/fact won't change or
finish).

🌟We use the Present Continuous Tense to talk about actions which are happening at (or around) the
present moment, but will soon finish. (temporary situation)

♦️I am living in the city. (Temporarily / currently / only for a period of time / this action/fact will change
or finish soon).

Further reading on using adverbs of frequency with the Present Continuous

We can use "always / constantly / continuously / continually / forever and other similar adverbs" with
the Present Continuous to show our ANNOYANCE / ANGER / COMPLAINING because of something that
happens regularly.

♦️She always comes late. (we are just stating a fact about her without telling what we feel about that
habit)

♦️She is always coming late. (we are stating a fact about her and expressing our annoyance of this habit)

♦️Christina always leaves her dirty clothes on the floor. (this a fact about her / we have no

emotions about that)

♦️Christina is always leaving her dirty clothes on the floor for me to pick up! Who does she think I am?
Her maid? (We are very annoyed)

Unit-4 Present Continuous and Present Simple 2

♦️Non-continuous Verbs♦️

Non-continuous verbs are verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. These "stative"
verbs are about state, not action, and they cannot express the continuous or progressive aspect. Here
are some of the most common non-continuous verbs:

♦️Mental and Emotional States♦️

Believe - I believe what you say.

Dislike - She dislikes eating pizza.

Doubt - I doubt what you say is true.

Imagine - He imagines he needs some time off work.

Know - I know Tom very well.

Like - I like watching TV in the evening.

Love - They love to visit friends.

Hate - I hate to see him suffer.

Prefer - They prefer to take tests on Monday.

Realize - She realizes that it was her mistake.

Recognize - Peter recognizes his mistake.

Remember - I remember that day very well.

Suppose - I suppose you are right.

Understand - Tim understands the situation.

Want - I want to wish you well.

Wish - I wish life were easier.

♦️Sense♦️

Appear - It appears to be finished.

Feel - I feel cold now.

Hear - I hear what you are saying.

See - I see that it's difficult.

Seem - It seems rather simple to me.

Smell - It smells like a rat.

Sound - It sounds like a good idea.

Taste - It tastes like almonds.

♦️Communication♦️

Agree - I agree we need to finish the project.

Astonish - He astonishes me every time.

Deny - The criminal denies any wrong doing.

Disagree - I disagree with what you say.

Impress - He impresses his teachers at school.

Mean - I mean that very honestly.

Please - She pleases her students every day in class.

Promise - I promise I'm not telling a lie.

Satisfy - She satisfies all the requirements.

Surprise - It surprises me every time.

♦️Other States♦️

Be - I'm a teacher.

Belong - It belongs to Tom.

Concern - It concerns all of us.

Consist - It consists of chocolate, cream and cookies.

Contain - The letter contains a threat.

Cost - The jeans cost $100.

Depend - It depends on how you look at it.

Deserve - You deserve much better.

Fit - That doesn't fit my schedule.

Include - The vacation includes all meals.

Involve - The job involves lots of travel.

Lack - It lacks any meaning.

Matter - It doesn't matter what you think.

Need - I need some time off.

Owe - He owes you a lot of money.

Own - I own a Porsche.

Possess - Jack possesses all the right skills.

Unit-5 Past Simple

Further reading on the uses of the Simple Past Tense

♦️1. actions finished in the past:

a. I visited Berlin last week.

b. Tom graduated last year.

♦️2. past habits or routines (repeated actions in the past):

a. I drank milk every morning when I was a child.

b. She watched TV in the evening when she was a child.

♦️3. series of completed actions in the past (successive actions):

a. On Sunday, my brother and I went to a nice lake. There, we met our friends. We swam in the warm
water and played volleyball in the afternoon. Too bad that we had to go home in the evening. We didn't
want to go to school on Monday.

♦️4. duration in the Past (especially with "for" and "all"):

a. I lived in Brazil for two years.

b. He worked for Microsoft for seven years.

♦️5. past facts or generalizations:

a. She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

b. He didn't use to like pizza before he tried it at McDonalds.

♦️6. in the second conditional, to express unreal or imaginary situations that may not happen:

a. If I were rich, I would travel abroad.

b. If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

♦️7. together with the Past Progressive/Continuous – the Simple Past interrupted an action which was in
progress in the past:

(While past continuous, past simple)

(When past simple, past continuous)

a. While they were having dinner, I arrived home.

b. When I arrived home, they were having dinner.

1st action → Past Progressive → were playing

2nd action → Simple Past → arrived

♦️8. when a sentence contains two clauses in the past simple, REMEMBER that the "when-clause"
happened first before the second clause:

a. When I arrived, the teacher started the lesson. (I arrived first, then the teacher started the lesson)

b. I arrived when the lesson finished. (First, the lesson was finished, then I arrived).

These are all the uses of the Simple Past Tense.

Unit-6 Past Continuous

Further reading on the uses of the Past Continuous Tense

♦️1. an action GOING ON at some time in the past (the time of the action may or may not be indicated):
a. It was getting darker.

b. They were watching TV all evening.

♦️2. to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted by a shorter action. The older and longer
action is in the past continuous and the newer and shorter one is in the past simple. (Remember this can
be a real interruption or just an interruption in time):

a. I was watching TV when she called.

b. The light went out while I was reading.

♦️3. for persistent habits in the past (to concentrate more on the continuity of the habits that they were
more than usual):

a. She was always watching TV.

b. They were always arriving late.

♦️4. Parallel Actions: (When you use the past continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it
expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time or simultaneously):

a. I was studying while my mother was making lunch.

b. They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

♦️5. Atmosphere or Background actions (We often use the past continuous to describe the atmosphere
or background actions at a particular time in the past):

a. The sun was shining when I went out.

b. When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones,
the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped.

♦️6. Repetition and Irritation with "Always": (The past continuous with words such as "always" or
"constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The
concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with negative emotion) (See also: using "always"
with the Present Continuous):

a. She was always coming to class late.

b. He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.

Unit-7 Present Perfect

Further reading on the uses of the Present Perfect Tense

♦️1. to indicate completed actions in the very recent or immediate past:

a. She has just gone out. (She is out now, not at home!)

b. I have just eaten. (I don't feel hungry now. I have just finished eating!)

♦️2. an action completed in the past whose effect lingers in the present (Here, we usually concentrate on
the effect (which can be still noticed in the present) more than the action itself (which happened in the
past):

a. Oh! I have cut my finger. (S/He may be bleeding now! A cut can clearly be seen in the finger)

b. She has not tidied her room yet. (Her room is not tidied. The room is totally messed up)

♦️3. We can also use the present perfect to talk about something that happened recently, even if there
isn't a clear result in the present. (This is common when we want to introduce news or new information.
(We often use the words 'just / yet / already / recently'.) However, the past simple is also correct in
these cases, especially in American English:

a. The Queen has given a speech.

b. The Mayor has announced a new plan for the railways.

♦️4. unspecified time before now (We use the present perfect to say that an action happened at an
unspecified time before now. (The exact time is not important)

a. I have never known him to be angry.

b. I have been to the USA twice.

(Notice: You CANNOT use the present perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, ago, last
week, or when I was a child, etc. But we CAN use the present perfect with unspecific expressions such
as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

♦️5. long actions which started in the near past and went on until very recently. (whether they are
finished or unfinished actions, states or even habits (we usually use stative verbs in this case and "since"
& "for" are often needed):

a. He has lived here since 2002. (long action)

b. I have known her for 10 years. (stative verb)

♦️6. life experience or accomplishments. These are actions or events that happened sometime during a
person's life. We don't say when the experience exactly happened, and the person needs to be alive
now. (We often use the words 'ever' and 'never' here):

a. He has done a lot of interesting things in his life. (He is still alive)

a. He did a lot of interesting things in his life. (He is dead)

b. I have never seen a real lion.

♦️7. with an unfinished time word/phrase (this month, this week, today). The period of time is still
continuing:

a. I have not had any coffee this morning. (It is still morning)

a. I did not have any coffee this morning. (Maybe it's afternoon or evening now, but not morning)

♦️8. change over time:

a. The government has become more interested in recycling resources.

b. Every country has developed its code of laws over hundreds or thousands of years.

♦️9. multiple actions at different times (We also use the present perfect to talk about several different
actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present perfect suggests the process is not
complete and more actions are possible).

a. The army has attacked that city five times.

b. She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Unit-9 Present Perfect-2

Further reading on the uses of the Present Perfect Continuous Tense

♦️1. Unfinished Actions with concentrating on the Duration from the Past Until Now:
(We use the present perfect continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued
up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be
used with the present perfect continuous.):

a. We have been waiting here for two hours!

b. She has been working for that company for three years.

♦️2. Finished actions:

(Actions which have recently stopped (though the whole action can be unfinished) and have a result,
which we can often see, hear, or feel, in the present. We don't use a time word here.):

a. I've been running, so I'm really hot.

b. It's been raining so the pavement is wet.

♦️3. Recently, Lately:

(We can also use the present perfect continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks". Without
the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or
"recently" to emphasize this meaning.):

a. Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

b. She has been watching too much television lately.

IMPORTANT NOTICE:

Remember that the present perfect continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." So, if you use
the present perfect continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that
the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you
smell the smoke on the person.

Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action.

♦️4. Repeated Actions:

(We use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense for repeated actions to say for how long the action has
been occurring i.e. with mentioning the duration of repetition):

a. I have been getting this magazine every week for a year.

b. She has been going to school every morning for two months.

♦️5. Action Continuity rather than Action Completeness:

(Present perfect continuous is used to focus on the action and not on the completion of the action. The
Present Perfect Simple, on the other hand, focuses on the completion and result of the action):

a. She has been writing a book. (focusing on the action of writing - the book may (not) have been
finished)

a. She has written a book. (focusing on the result - the book has been finished)

b. They’ve been negotiating the contract. (focusing on the action, it’s not important if it’s finished or not)

b. They’ve negotiated the contract. (focusing on the result, the negotiation has been finished)

♦️6. Temporary Actions:

(When the action/event is more temporary we often use present perfect continuous. When it is more
permanent we often use present perfect simple.):

a. They’ve lived in Italy for many years. (Present perfect simple)

b. I’ve been living here for a month. (Present perfect continuous)

Unit-10 Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous Tenses

( I have been doing vs. I have done)

Further reading on the differences between the Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous
Tenses

Let's consider these two sentences:

1- I have played tennis for five years.

2- I have been playing tennis for five years.

Both sentences are correct and ALMOST mean the same thing. The only difference is that we use:

1- The Present Perfect (Simple)

"I have played tennis for five years."

to put emphasis on the action, and we use:

2- The Present Perfect Continuous

"I have been playing tennis for five years."

to put an emphasis on the duration of the activity.

Remember!

(Present Perfect Continuous is used to focus on the action and not on the completion of the action. The
Present Perfect Simple, on the other hand, focuses on the completion and result of the action).

Further reading on the differences between the Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous
Tenses

(1) I have been playing tennis for five years.

The tense is the Present Perfect Continuous Tense. The time phrase indicates the duration (five years).
The combination of the tense and the time phrase forces us to read it as: "I have been playing tennis for
five years now." This gives us the reading that the activity has been going on for five years up until now.
It also implies that the activity is likely to keep continuing, at least in the immediate future.

(2) I have played tennis for five years.

The tense is the Present Perfect Simple. The time phrase is, again, "for five years". However, the
sentence is different from (1). It doesn't force us to read the time part as "for five years up to now".

It's unclear exactly when exactly in the past the speaker has played tennis. All we know is that it
happened before now, at least five years but before now not up to now. (In other words, it's possible to
read the sentence as "At some point in my life, I've played tennis for five years.") It's unclear whether it
has ended or not. It's also possible that it's been continued up until now, and possibly will continue into
the future. The speaker says nothing explicitly, so we have a wider range of possible readings.

Having said that, the preferred reading, out of context, is: "I have played tennis for five years now."
Which means nearly the same thing as (1). When we read both alternatives as "for five years now", the
difference is very little. To demonstrate such a small difference, these examples can be helpful:

How long have you been playing tennis?

I've been playing tennis for five years.

Do you know how to play tennis?

Of course, I've played tennis for five years.

Unit-11 How long have you (been)...?

Further Notes on the differences between the Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous
Tenses

♦️(1) When we want to express, ask or tell "how long" or the "time duration" of an action, the Present
Perfect Continuous would be more natural:

a - He has been learning English since 2002.

b- They have been watching TV for two hours.

BUT REMEBER:

Some verbs express "state" not "action"; therefore, we use the Present Perfect Simple not the
Continuous which "State Verbs" that we have discussed earlier in our course:

a- We have known each other since 2002.

b- I have had a car for two years.

To conclude:

- Dynamic implies change (action)

- Stative implies no change (state)

1. Most verbs in English are dynamic: work, live, eat, etc.

2. A small group of verbs are stative: (know, understand, etc.).

3. Exceptions to the rule: some verbs can be used in a dual sense i.e. a stative or a dynamic sense:

"be": although "be" is generally stative it can have a temporary dynamic sense: My boss is being nasty.

The verb <live> can be used in a stative sense when it means to "stay" or "be alive" i.e. a state: He didn't
live to see the realization of his dream. All other meanings are dynamic.

The verb "come" is another example compare:

I come from Germany (stative: I am from Germany)

I am coming from Germany (dynamic: travelling).

It measures four metres. (stative)

He is measuring the car. (dynamic)

4. Sometimes you make a stative verb dynamic to add emphasis only:

I hope she...
I am hoping she.... (dynamic: hope very much).

Final Note:

The verbs "live", "work" and "smoke" are usually said to be treated as stative verbs not actions.

♦️(2) In negative sentences, it's more natural to use the Present Perfect Simple not the Present Perfect
Continuous. If you remember, the Present Perfect Simple expresses an action that has started and
finished or never happened before. The Continuous expresses an action that has started before now and
has been continuing up until now.

So, there is no need to focus on the duration of a verb that is has not happened at all:

- I have not played music before. (correct)

- I have not been playing music before. (unnatural)

Unit-12 for vs. since | when vs. how long?

Further Notes on the differences between For and Since

The use of FOR

We use "For" when we measure the duration – when we say how long something lasts.

For + the length of a period of time

To measure a period of time up to the present, we use the present perfect tense and not the
♦️
present tense.

- I have known her for a long time. (Correct)

- I know her for a long time. (Incorrect)

- I have lived here for ten years. (Correct)

- I live here for ten years. (Incorrect)

♦️Notice: The present tense with "For" refers to a period of time that extends into the future.

- How long are you here for? (Until when in the future)

- How long have you been here for? (Since when in the past)
♦️Notice: In reality, we can use all verb tenses with "For":

- They exercise for two hours every day. (Simple Present)

- They are exercising for three hours today. (Present Continuous)

- He has lived in Moscow for a long time. (Present Perfect)

- He has been living in Turin for three months. (Present Perfect Continuous)

- I worked at the service station for five years. (Simple Past)

- He will be in hospital for at least a week. (Simple Future)

The use of SINCE

♦️"Since" gives the starting point of actions, events or states. It refers to when things began.
After "since" you always see a Simple Past time marker (not a length of a period of time).

- She has been watching TV for three hours. ("three hours" is not a simple past time marker.
It is a period of time. So, we must use "for" not "since".)

- She has been watching TV since 03:00 p.m. ("03:00 p.m." is a simple past time marker. So,
we must use "since" not "for".)

♦️"Since" + a point in time (in the past), until now.

- I've been waiting since 7 o'clock.

- I have known him since January.

With since we use the present perfect tenses or the past perfect tenses.

- I have been here since 5 o'clock and I am getting tired.

- I had been working since 5 o'clock and I was getting tired.

♦️Since can also be used in the structure It has been + period of time + since.

- It has been two months since I last saw her. (Remember: "I last saw her" is simple past, so
we use "since")

- It has been three years since the last earthquake.

♦️♦️♦️SUMMERIZATION♦️♦️♦️
♦️ "FOR" to mention a specific period (or duration) of time.

I have been a doctor for fifteen years. (duration = 15 years)

♦️"SINCE" to mention the starting point of a period of time (continues to now).

I have been a doctor since 1992. (starting point = 1992)

♦️ Both "For" and "Since" are most commonly used with the perfect tense - we don't use these
expressions in the present tense.

- I have learnt Russian for three years. (correct)

- I learn Russian for three years. (incorrect)

♦️While we can use "For" in the Simple Past tense, we can't use "Since" in the Simple

Past tense. "Since" can only be used in the perfect tenses.

- She went to Japan for three years. (correct)

- She went to Japan since 2003. (incorrect)

♦️ It worth mentioning that both "For" and "Since" have other meanings in English that are
not associated with time.

- This is for you.

- Is this the train for London?

- Since you asked, I'll say yes.

- Since he didn't study, he didn't pass the exam.

Unit-13 Present Perfect and Past 1 (I have done & I did)

Further Notes on the differences between Present Perfect and Past Simple

Remember:

1- We use the past simple for past events or actions which have no connection to the present.
❌ (Tom doesn't have his book now.) He lost it.

✅ (Tom has his book now.) He lost it.

2- We use the present perfect for actions which started in the past and are still happening
now OR for finished actions which have a connection to the present.

❌ (Tom doesn't have his book now.) He lost it.

✅ (Tom doesn't have his book now.) He has lost it.

3- We CAN'T use the present perfect with a finished time word (specific time):

❌ I've been to the museum yesterday.

✅ I went to the museum yesterday.

4- The Present Perfect is connected in someway to the present while the Past Simple is not at
all::

✅ She has gone to London. (She must be in London now).

✅ She went to London. (She may or may not be in London now).

5- We cannot use a specific time with the present perfect tense, but we can tell how many
times.

- We have gone camping twice.

6- We can also tell the number of times with past tense sentences. We usually do this when
we are telling the number of times and a specific time.

- I visited Australia two times in 2015.

7- Sometimes, the present perfect can be used for things that finished very recently. In these
situations, we can use either the past tense or the present perfect tense.

Both "just or recently" can be used in the Present Perfect and Past Simple while the adverb
"lately" can be used in the Present Perfect ONLY.

- The company just announced their sales results. (Past Tense)

- The company has just announced their sales results. (Present Perfect)

8- If there is no specific time, then we can use both. They have the same basic meaning.
- I went there.

- I have been there.

The correct answer is: (Both "saw" and "have seen" are correct.)

Remember that one of our rules says:

Both "just" and "recently" can be used in the Present Perfect and Past Simple while the
adverb "lately" can be used in the Present Perfect ONLY.

The difference in meaning is that:

1- I just saw Tom in the supermarket. (simple past)

This sentence would suggest that Tom is not still in the supermarket now. (The simple past
has no connection with now).

2- I have just seen Tom in the supermarket. (present perfect)

This sentence would suggest that Tom is almost in the supermarket now. (The present perfect
has connection with now).

So, both "saw" and "have seen" are correct with the adverb "just" with a little difference in
meaning.

Unit-14 Present Perfect and Past 2 (I have done & I did)

Further Notes on the differences between Present Perfect and Past Simple

♦️ Use the simple past when the action started in the past, finished in the past, and is not
continuing now.

♦️ Use the present perfect when the action started in the past and is continuing now (or even
if it has finished, usually finishes in the recent past and has a result on now).

The simple past tells us that an action happened at a certain time in the past, and is not
continuing anymore. It tells us when an action happened, so more information needs to be
given with this verb form, such as when the action took place.
The present perfect tells us that an action started in the past and it is still happening now, or
it is something that happens regularly. We may need more information to tell us how long it
has been going on. It may also tell us that the time period it started in is still going on.

The following example sentences show the different meanings when using the two verb
tenses.

♦️ The sun rose at 6:00 am.

(Simple Past: We know that the sun came up at a time in the past and it is not rising now. The
sun may or may not be in the sky when this statement is made. The time is important to add.)

♦️ The sun has risen.

(Present perfect: We know that the sun already rose, and it is still in the sky now.)

♦️ Jackson ate lunch early.

(Simple Past: Eating lunch has started and ended in the past. Someone might say this when
the time for eating lunch has also ended. Lunch happened early, and it is over now.)

♦️ Jackson has eaten lunch.

(Present Perfect: Jackson started and finished eating lunch in the past, but lunch time is still
going on. Someone might say this when others are preparing to eat lunch, and they want to
know whether Jackson will join them.)

♦️ Jeff was friends with Kelly when he was a kid.

(Simple Past: This tells us that Jeff is not friends with Kelly anymore, and the additional
information tells us when he was friends with her in the past.)

♦️ Jeff has been friends with Kelly since he was a kid.

(Present perfect: This tells us that Jeff was friends with Kelly before now and is still friends
with her now. The friendship is continuing, and the additional information tells us how long it
has been going on.)

♦️ She lived in Paris for a year.

(Simple Past: This action started and finished in the past. She no longer lives in Paris. It is
important to know the action lasted for a year.)

♦️ She has lived in Paris for a year.

(Present perfect: This action started in the past and is still going on now; it has not finished.
She lives in Paris now, and additional information tells us how long she has lived there.)

♦️ Laila ran two marathons last year.

(Simple Past: We know Meg ran two marathons in the past, and the time period the action
started in and finished in—last year—has ended.)

♦️ Laila has run two marathons this year.

(Present perfect: We know Meg started running marathons this year. However, this year has
not ended and she may run more marathons before the end of the year.)

💫💫 The golden rule is that: 💫💫

1- Don't use the Present Perfect with specific past time.

2- Don't use the Present Perfect with finished time periods.

✅ John had breakfast this morning.

(We are now in the afternoon or evening. The morning period is finished.)

✅ John has just had breakfast this morning.

(We are still in the morning period.)

✅ Mozart composed more than 600 pieces of music.

(Mozart is dead, and he no longer composes music.)

❌ Mozart has composed more than 600 pieces of music.

(Mozart is dead but this sentence would suggest that he is still alive. That's why it is an
incorrect sentence.)

Unit-15 Past Perfect (I had done)

Further reading on the uses of the Past Perfect Simple Tense

♦️1- An action that happened (or never happened) before another action in the past:

a- When we arrived, the film had started.

(= 1st the film started, 2nd we arrived)

b- My father retired last year. He had worked for the same company all his life.

(= 1st he worked, 2nd he retired)

c- I had never met her before yesterday's party.

(( We usually use the past perfect to make it clear which action happened first. Maybe we are
already talking about something in the past and we want to mention something else that is
further back in time. This is often used to explain or give a reasons for something in the past.))

a- It had felt ill in the night, so I didn't go to school.

(= 1st I felt ill, 2nd I did not go to school)

♦️ 2- An action that happened before a specific time in the past:

a- By 2000, many people had emigrated because of starvation.

(People had emigrated before 2000)

b- She had got married by the time she was 22 years old.

(She got married before she was 22 years old)

(( Something that started in the past and continued up to another action or time in the past.
The past perfect tells us 'how long', just like the present perfect, but this time the action
continues up to a point in the past rather than the present. Usually we use 'for + time'. We can
also use the past perfect continuous here, so we most often use the past perfect simple with
stative verbs.))

a- When he graduated, he had been in London for six years.

(= He arrived in London six years before he graduated and lived there until he graduated, or
even longer.)

b- On the 20th of July, I had worked here for three months.

♦️ 3- Third conditional + wish

To talk about unreal or imaginary things in the past. In the same way that we use the past
simple to talk about unreal or imaginary things in the present, we use the past perfect (one step
back in time) to talk about unreal things in the past. This is common in the 'third conditional'
and after 'wish'.

a- She would have passed the exam if she had studied harder.

b- I wish I hadn't gone to bed so late!

♦️ chronological order of tenses with "before", "after" and "by"

- Simple Past after Past Perfect:

a- He watched TV after he had finished his homework.

- Past Perfect before Simple Past:

a- She had cooked before she went out with her friends.

- Past Perfect by Simple Past:

a- They had already left by the time we arrived.

♦️1- Remember:♦️

There is no need to use the Past Perfect with "before" or "after". We can use the Simple Past in
both clauses because the relationship between the two actions is already clear with "before"
and "after".

a- She had not finished cleaning the house before the guests arrived.

or

b- She did not finish cleaning the house before the quests arrived.

♦️2- Remember:♦️

With the adverb of time "when", if the Simple Past tense is used in both clauses, then the the
verb in the "when-clause" is the verb that happens first:

a- When I arrived, we had dinner.

(1st- I arrived, 2nd we had dinner)

b- When I arrived home, my mother cooked dinner.

(1st- I arrived, 2nd my mother cooked)

But, when we use the Past Perfect in one of the two clauses, then the Past Perfect verb is the
verb that happens first.

a- When I arrived, they had had dinner.

(1st- they had had dinner, 2nd I arrived)

b- When I arrived home, my mother had cooked dinner.

(1st- had cooked, 2nd I arrived)

♦️3- Remember:♦️

Don't use the Past Perfect Tense if you don't have a Simple Past Action / Time that you need to
go further back in time before it.

- I had finished my homework. (seems unnatural)

- I had finished my homework before I watched TV. (more natural)

Unit-16 Past Perfect Continuous (I had been doing)

Further reading on the uses of the Past Perfect Continuous Tense

♦️ 1. Duration Before Something in the Past:

We use the past perfect continuous to show that something started in the past and continued
up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations
which can be used with the past perfect continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present
Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before
something else in the past.

a. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

b. Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

♦️2. Cause of Something in the Past:

Using the past perfect continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show
cause and effect.
a. The pavement was wet. It had been raining.

b. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

♦️3. Repeated Actions:

(We use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense for repeated actions to say for how long the action
had been occurring before another past action i.e. with mentioning the duration of repetition):

a. I had been getting this magazine every week for a year before I unsubscribed.

b. She had been going to school every morning for two months before she travelled abroad.

Unit-17 have and have got

Further reading on the differences between Have and Have got

♦️ 1- When we are talking about possession, relationships, illnesses and characteristics of

people or things we can use either "have" or "have got":

* I have two sisters. ✅

* I have got two sisters. ✅

* She has blue eyes. ✅

* She has got blue eyes. ✅

♦️ 2- ONLY Have is correct when talking about actions, experiments or things that we do (In
these cases, 'have got' is NOT allowed:

* I usually have dinner at 8 o’clock. ✅

* I usually have got dinner at 8 o’clock. ❌

* I have a shower every day. ✅

* I have got a shower every day. ❌

♦️ 3- "Have got" is for Spoken English

Use "have got" in spoken English.

Use "have" in your formal written English (business correspondence, etc.).

If you are writing an informal message to your friends - on Facebook, for example - "have
got" is fine.

* I have got a car. (Informal) ✅

* I have a car. (More formal) ✅

♦️ 4- Note that "have got" is NOT the present perfect of "get".

With "have got" we don’t use helping verbs such as do and don’t to form questions and
negatives:

+ He has got a beautiful house.

- He has not got a big house.

? Has he got a beautiful house?

While with "have" we do use the helping verbs "do or does" to form questions and negatives:

+ He has a beautiful house.

- He does not have a big house.

? Does he have a beautiful house?

♦️ 5- "Have got" only exists in the Present Simple Tense. We don’t use it in the continuous,
past or future tenses.

* He has a problem. ✅

* He has got a problem. ✅

* He had a problem. ✅

* He had got a problem. ❌

* He will probably have a problem. ✅

* He will probably have got a problem. ❌

♦️NOTE-1:

"Have got" is NOT normally used in the simple past tense "had got"; it is not considered
correct to say:

* Last year we had got a house in the city. ❌

Rather, "had" alone is used as the simple past. "Had got" is normally heard as an even more
colloquial version of "have got".

♦️NOTE-2:

The "have" in "have got" is almost always contracted (e.g. I've got, he's got, John's got).

In the sense of to be obliged, the "have" is sometimes not contracted when "got" or the
subject is stressed in the sentence:

* I have got to go there.

* I've got to go there.

(The two examples above are both common but "I've got to go there." is almost exclusively
preferred in spoken English over "I have got to go there.").

♦️NOTE-3:

While "have got" and variants are common colloquial usage, in most cases the "got" is
redundant and can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.

When "have got" or "has got" is used as the Present Perfect of get, then got should be
retained.

Example: "She has got under my skin".

((In American English, one normally says "have gotten" or "has gotten" when forming the
present perfect of "get", but nevertheless one uses "have got" or "has got" when the
meaning is "to have".

Unit-18 used to (do)

Further reading on used to

♦️ We use "used to" when we refer to things in the past which are no longer true. It can refer
to repeated actions or to a state or situation:

For example:

- I used to have long hair (but now I have short hair).

- He used to smoke (but now he doesn't smoke).

- They used to live in India (but now they live in Germany).

- He used to play football for the local team, but he’s too old now.

♦️ Negative: didn’t use to:

The negative of "used to" is most commonly "didn’t use(d) to". Sometimes we write it with a
final -d, sometimes not. Both forms are common, but many people consider the form with
the final -d to be incorrect, and you should not use it in formal writing:

- It didn’t use to be so crowded in the shops as it is nowadays.

- I didn’t used to like broccoli when I was younger, but I love it now. (Don’t use this form in
exams, because it is informal.)

In very formal styles, we can use the negative form "used not to":

- She used not to live as poorly as she does now.

♦️Questions:

The most common form of question is the auxiliary "did" + use(d) to. Many people consider
the form with a final -d to be incorrect, and you should not use it in formal writing:

- I think we met once, a couple of years ago. Did you use to work with Kevin Harris?

- Didn’t she used to live in the same street as us? (Don’t use this form in written Academic
exams.)

♦️ Emphatic "did"

We can use the emphatic auxiliary "did" with "used to":

- We never used to mix very much with the neighbours, but we did used to say hello to them
in the street. (Don’t use this form in written Academic exams.)

♦️"used to" or "be used to"?

"used to" (when used as a verb) refers to actions and situations in the past which no longer
happen or are no longer true. It always refers to the past:

- She used to sing in a choir, but she gave it up. (She sang, but she doesn’t sing any more)

"be used to" (when used as an adjective) means ‘be accustomed to’ or ‘be familiar with’. It
can refer to the past, present or future. We follow "be used to" with a noun (phrase), a
pronoun or the -ing form of a verb "the gerund":

- I work in a hospital, so I’m used to long hours. (I am accustomed to/familiar with long
hours.)

- She lives in a very small village and hates traffic. She’s not used to it.

- I'm used to getting up early, so I don't mind doing it (= getting up early is normal for me, it's
what I usually do).

♦️Note that we make the negative or the question with the verb 'be' in the normal way. The
'used to' doesn't change:

- Lucy isn't used to staying up late, so she's very tired today.

- Are your children used to walking a lot?

♦️ We can use 'get used to + verb-ing' (which is considered more formal than "be used to") to
talk about the change of not normal to normal. We can also use this in any tense:

- Don't worry if your new job is hard at first. You will get used to it.

- It took me a few months to get used to living in Japan. At first everything seemed very
different, but then gradually it became normal for me.

Unit-19 Present tenses (I do / I am doing) for the future

Further reading on the Present (Simple and Continuous) Tenses for Future

We can use the Present Continuous ( I am doing) and the Present Simple (I do) to talk about
future events:

♥️Present Continuous for future♥️

♦️ Arrangements / Plans:

(something that you have already decided to do and you have made some preparations for
it). Usually, more than one person is aware of the event and some preparations have already
happened.

- I am coming to your home tonight. (Both you and I know that).

- I am meeting Sarah at the railway station tomorrow.

♦️Actions in the immediate future:

(We also use the present continuous for an action just before we start to do it. This happen
especially with verbs of movement (go/come/leave etc.):

- Are you ready? Yes, I'm coming.

- It's getting late. I'm leaving.

♥️Present Simple for future ♥️

♦️ Schedules / Fixed Timetables:

(Something that always occurs at the same time - usually for airports, schools, companies
etc.)

- The plane leaves tomorrow at 5 pm. (it always leaves at 5 pm on Mondays).

- The meeting starts at 10:00 am every Sunday.

Unit-20 I am going to (do)

Further reading on future forms and uses

♦️Spontaneous (unplanned) future decisions (will) ♦️

We use "will" to express a decision that we make spontaneously in the present

moment.

Examples:

- (The phone rings) I’ll answer it.

- Oh, and I'll also take a kilo of oranges please.

♦️future facts (will) ♦️

- We can use "will" to describe future facts.

Examples:

- Tomorrow, the sun will rise at 8:30 and will set at 5 PM.

- Who will host the next World Cup?

♦️Predictions based on opinion (will) or based on a present situation (be going to)

We can use "will" or "be going to" make predictions:

(1) to express opinions about things that may happen in the future; or

(2) to make assumptions about the future based on something that's happening now (or a
present situation).

We often use "think" to express an opinion.

Examples:

- I think it will rain tomorrow. / It'll rain tomorrow. (an opinion )

- The clouds are coming out... It's going to rain. (an assumption based on the clouds)

- It will be a boring meeting as usual.

- I think it’s going to be hot today.

♦️To express a future plan (be going to) ♦️

We use "be going to + infinitive" to describe an arrangement that we plan to do in the future.
This can be tricky for learners. We do not use "will" for things that we've already arranged or
decided to do. As noted above, we use "will" for things that we decide to do right at that very
moment of speaking.

(Please note that we can either use "be going to" or the present continuous to express a
future plan). The present continuous and "be going to + infinitive" are formed in a similar
way).

- We're going to see a movie tonight.

- After the movie, we're going to have dinner at the pizzeria.

- We're all going to meet in front of the cinema at 7 PM.

♦️Future plans / decisions with the main verb "be" (will) ♦️

As noted above, we use "be going to" to express future actions that are planned in advance
and "will" for spontaneous decisions. However, if the main verb is "be," we can use "will" to
express a future action - even if it is for a firm plan or decision made in advance.

Examples:

- We'll be in Washington tomorrow for a conference.

- Will you be at home later?

- I won't be at the office next week.

♦️To express willingness / unwillingness (will) ♦️

We can use "will" to show that we are willing or voluntarily agreeing (or not willing or
agreeing) to do something in the future.

This includes making promises that we will do something and making requests or asking
people if they are willing to do something.

Examples:

- I will get the children after school.

- He won't do it for free.

- Will they deliver the furniture to my home?

- I promise I will come home by midnight.

♦️To make an invitation (will)♦️

We can use "will" in the future simple tense to invite people to future events.

- Will you marry me?

- Yes! Will you come with me to tell my parents the good news?

- I'm engaged! Will you come to my bachelorette party?

♦️To make an offer or suggestion (shall) ♦️

"Shall" is used with the "I" and "we" forms to make offers and suggestions using questions.
(Note: We don't use "shall" for "you / he / she / it / they" when we make offers and
suggestions).

Examples:

- Shall I get something for dinner?

- Shall I help you carry those heavy boxes?

♦️Asking opinions and advice (shall) ♦️

Shall is often used with "I" and "we" to ask about someone's opinion or advice (usually about
an offer or suggestion.)

- What shall I wear to my interview?

- Who shall we invite to the meeting?

♦️Final Note: Other ways to talk about the future:

We can also talk about the future without using a future verb tense.

For example, as noted above (for planned events), we can use the present continuous to talk
about something that we have a plan or intention to do in the future.

Also, the simple present is used for scheduled (timetabled) events in the future.

Unit-21 will and shall modals

Further reading on the difference between will and shall

We use ‘will’ for the following situations:

♦️ 1- to describe the future:

- We’ll not be at the hotel until 8 p.m.

- The train will be late today because of the bad weather.

♦️ 2- to make a prediction:

- The world population will grow a lot in the next 50 years.

- Who do you think will win the tournament?

Notice: Some predictions are about facts – things that we know always happen:

- It’s all wool. It’ll shrink if you wash it in hot water.

♦️ 3- for intentions and decision made at the moment of speaking:

- I'm busy right now - I'll call you tomorrow.

- Jean’s over there. I’ll just go and say ‘hello’ before we leave.

Remember: We use will and be going to for decisions, intentions and plans. We use will when
the decision is immediate and be going to when we have already made a plan.

♦️ 4- to make a request (when you want somebody to do something for you):

- Will you bring some more water please?

- Will you be quiet please? I’m trying to make an important phone call.

♦️ 5- to make promises and offers:

- I’ll be there for you. Don’t worry.

- She’ll help you finish the work, don’t worry.

♦️ 6- to describe the consequence of a conditional phrase (the first conditional):

- If it rains, I’ll take my umbrella,

- Will she come to dinner if I invite her?

♦️ 7- willingness (especially with "I"):

- I'll show you where to go.

- I’ll give you a lift to school.

♦️ 8- Inanimate objects (things)

"Will" may be used to refer to inanimate objects and how they respond to humans, most
typically in the negative form won’t:

- The car won’t start.

- The door won’t open. It’s stuck.

We use ‘shall’ for the following situations:

In the past, ‘shall’ was often used as an alternative to ‘will’, but in modern English we usually
prefer ‘will’ for affirmative and negative sentences. However, we still use ‘shall’ to form
questions with ‘I’ and ‘we’, especially in British English.

♦️ 1- to make offers using "I" and "we" (When you want to know if someone wants you to do
something for them):

- Shall I make some lunch?

- Shall I water your plants while you’re away?

♦️2- to make suggestions using "I" and "we":

- Shall we go to the park later?

- Shall we have something to eat?

♦️ 3- to express formal obligations or commands:

- Applicants shall provide evidence of their qualifications.

- The accused shall appear in court again on 26th October.

Notice: "Shall" is sometimes used with second and third person pronouns to express a threat.

- You shall regret this.

♦️ 4- to make a promise:

- We shall do everything we can to solve the problem.

- He shan’t be long. Do have a seat while you wait.

♦️ 5- to describe the future VERY formally:

- We shall overcome this difficult moment.

- Mr Lopez shall begin his talk at 2:30pm.

Unit-22 will and shall 2 modals

English Grammar in Use:

Further reading on the difference between will and shall

♦️We do not use 'will' to say what somebody has already arranged or decided to do:

- I am travelling next week. (not I will travel next week.)

- She is going on a holiday next Friday. (not She will go on a holiday)

♦️We use 'will' to say what we know or believe about the future (not what someone has
already decided).

- I think that she will pass her exams.

- I think it will be rainy tomorrow.

Compare:

1- I think James is going to the party on Friday. (= I think he has already decided to go)

2- I think James will go to the party on Friday. (= I think he will decide to go)

♦️We often use will (’ll) with: probably, I’m sure, I think, I don’t think or I wonder

- I wonder who will come first.

- Don't worry about the exam. I'm sure you will pass.

♦️Normally we use 'shall' only with I and we. You can say:

- I shall be late this evening. or I will be late this morning.

- We shall probably travel by train. or We will probably travel by train.

Notice-1:

In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll:

- We'll be there on time.

Notice-2:

We don't use "shall" with he, she, it, you, they.

Notice-3:

The negative of "shall" is "shall not" or "shan't"

Notice-4:

The negative of "will" is "will not" or "won't"

Shall or will?

What is the difference between these four uses of the future tense?

1. I shall do the essay tomorrow evening.

2. I will do the essay tomorrow evening.

and

3. They will return at six o’clock.

4. They shall return at six o’clock.

Please feel free to leave us a comment telling us about the difference between these two
pairs of sentences.

Many people think that "shall" and "will" are interchangeable, but strictly speaking they are
not. Moreover, the ways in which they differ are highly complicated.

In the first person;

- "I/We shall" expresses the simple future.

- "I/We will" though still expresses the future, additionally conveys intention or
determination.

Thus sentence 1 is an unadorned statement, while 2 resembles a promise.

But the position is reversed in the second and third persons.

- "You/He/She/It/They will" expresses the simple future.

- "You/He/She/It/They shall" are almost directives. They still express the future, but there is
an additional sense of determination or even command conveyed.
Thus, it's 3 above is the unadorned statement; 4 is an effect issuing an order, or at least
expressing the speaker's belief that the words will come true.

Unit-23 I will and I'm going to #modals

Further reading on the differences between will and be going to

A very confusing concept is when to use WILL and when to use BE GOING TO when we talk
about the future.

Both refer to the future, and there is a slight difference between the two; though in most
cases they can be used interchangeably with no difference in meaning.

Even if you misuse them, a native speaker is going to understand you without any problems.

BE GOING TO ♦️♦️
♦️♦️

The structure BE GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future BUT with some type of
connection to the present. We use it in the following situations:

♦️ 1. When we have already decided or we INTEND to do something in the future. (Prior Plan):

The decision has been made before the moment of speaking.

- They're going to retire to the beach. (They have already bought a little beach house.)

- I'm going to accept the job offer. (I have thought enough about the job offer.)

♦️ 2. When there are definite signs that something is going to happen. (Evidence)

Something is likely to happen based on the evidence or experience you have now.

- I think it is going to rain - I just felt a drop.

- I don't feel well. I think I'm going to throw up. (throw up = vomit)

♦️ 3. When something is about to happen:

- Get back! The bomb is going to explode.

- I'm going to go on holiday next week.

 WILL ♦️♦️
♦️♦️

♦️ 1. For things that we decide to do now. (Rapid Decisions)

(This is when you make a decision at that moment, in a spontaneous way.)

- You like it? I'll buy one for you too.

- I think I'll try one of those. (I just decided this right now.)

♦️ 2. When we think or believe something about the future. (Prediction)

- My team will not win the league this season.

- I think it will rain later so take an umbrella with you.

♦️ 3. To make an offer, a promise or a threat.

- I'll give you a discount if you buy it right now.

- I promise I will behave next time.

♦️ 4. You use WON'T when someone refuses to do something.

- I told him to take out the trash but he won't do it.

- My kids won't listen to anything I say.

♦️♦️More examples ♦️♦️

1- (The phone is ringing now.)

Julie: I will get it!

("I'm going to get it." is very strange, because it makes us think that Julie knew the phone
was going to ring before it really did).

2- Our meeting starts in 5 minutes and we still need 15 minutes to get there:

We are going to be late for the meeting. (It's clear enough that we are going to be late at least
10 minutes.)

3- Jane always comes late for meetings:

Jane will be late for the meeting. (She is always late, so I think / believe that she will be late
as usual, but this is only a prediction.)
Unit-24 will be doing and will have done

Further reading on the differences between will be doing and will have done

Future Continuous (will +be +v-ing): ♦️♦️

♦️♦️

♦️ 1- Future continuous is used to say that an action will be in progress at a specific time in the
future:

- I will be helping him to do the task.

- In two hours she will be leaving work.

♦️ 2- Future continuous is used for an action in progress in the future which is interrupted by a
shorter action:

- I’ll be waiting for you when you get back.

- She will be sleeping when you phone her.

♦️ 3- Future continuous is used to predict the present:

- Don’t call him now, he’ll be sleeping.

- Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

♦️ 4- Future continuous is used for arrangements, often as a reminder or warning:

- We’ll be leaving at 10 o’clock. (So, don’t be late!)

- I will be sleeping at 10 o'clock. (So, don't call me at that time!)

♦️ 5- Future continuous is used to make polite enquiries about someone’s plans (without
wishing to influence those plans):

- Will you be watching TV this evening? (You simply want to know if the TV will be free!)

- Will you be taking the car tomorrow? (I just want to know if the car will be free so I can take
it in case you don't want to take it.)
♦️ 6- We also use the future continuous to talk about complete actions (rather than ongoing
actions) in the future (When we use it in this way, will be (doing) is similar to will (do) and
going to (do):

- Later in the programme, I’ll be talking to the Minister of Education.

- The team’s star player is injured and won’t be playing in the game on Saturday.

Future Perfect (will + have +V-3♦️♦️

♦️♦️

♦️ 1- When describing an action that will be completed before another action or point in the
future (The action will be completed between now and some point of time in the future.):

- She will have arrived before the meeting starts.

- By the end of this lecture, you will have understood the Future Perfect Tense.

♦️ 2- We use the future perfect to say ‘how long’ for an action that starts before and
continues up to another action or time in the future. Usually we need ‘for’ to indicate time
duration of that action:

- By next Monday, we will have been married for six years.

- At 4 o'clock, I will have been up for 36 hours without sleeping.

♦️ 3- We use the future perfect with a future time word, (often with 'by') to talk about an
action that will finish before a certain time in the future, but we don't know exactly when:

- By 10 o'clock, I will have finished my homework. (= I will finish my homework some

time before 10, but we don't know exactly when.)

- By the time I'm sixty-four, I will have retired. (= I will retire sometime before I'm sixty.

Maybe when I’m fifty-nine, maybe when I’m fifty-two.)

♦️ 4- Use 3: Certainty about the Near Past (to express conviction / confidence / belief / or
assumption that something happened in the near past):

- The train will have left by now. We have to look for another way to get there. (I'm sure the
train has left.)

- He will probably have noticed that his bike is broken.

Unit-25 When I do and When I've done (if and when)

Further reading on Future Time Clauses (when I do and when I have done) if and when

♦️ Future time clauses are dependent clauses that must be joined to independent (main)
clauses. It is customary to use the Future Tense in the independent clause and the Simple
Present tense in the dependent (time) clause.

Do not use the future in the time clause.

- When the movie ends, I will go to bed. ✅

- When the movie ends, I am going to bed. ✅

- When the movie ends, I am going to go to bed. ✅

- When the movie will end, I will go to bed. ❌ ((Don't use the Future Tense in the dependent
(time) clause))

♦️ Time clauses often start with: "when, while, before, after, as soon as, and until".

- As soon as I finish the dishes, I'll help you with your homework.

- ِAfter she finishes work, she will go home.

- Before I visit you, I will call you.

- As soon as it stops raining, we will play football.

- While I wait for the bus, I will have coffee.

♦️ In conditional clauses with words like if, unless, even if, we often use present tense forms to
talk about the future:

- We will not be able to go out if it is raining.

- I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.

- Even if they lose tomorrow, they will still be champions.

♦️ We do not normally use 'will' in Time Clauses and Conditional Clauses:

- I will come home when I finish work. (NOT will finish work)

- We will not be able to go out if it rains. (NOT will rain)

- It will be nice to see Peter when he gets home. (NOT will get home)

- You must wait here until your father comes. (NOT will come)

♦️ But we can use 'will' if it means want to or be willing to:

- I will be very happy if you will come to my party.

- We should finish the job early if George will help us.

♦️ Time clauses with reference to the future can also be introduced by other expressions such
as: (once, the moment, the minute, the day, by the time...)

- Tony will call the restaurant the moment he gets home.

- I'll contact you once I receive an estimate.

- You will be notified the minute your order arrives.

- It will be dark by the time we arrive home.

♦️ When we want to concentrate on the completion of the first verb before the second verb
starts happening, we use the Present Perfect instead of the Simple Present in the
Independent (main) Clauses. Compare:

- When you finish your homework, you can watch TV. (S/he may be allowed to watch TV
without even really finishing their homework).

- When you have finished your homework, you can watch TV. (S/he will NOT be allowed to
watch TV unless they really finish their homework).

Other two examples:

- When it stops raining, we will go out. (We may even go out before the rain actually stops).

- When it has stopped raining, we will go out. (We will NOT go out until the rain has totally
stopped).

Unit-26 can, could and (be) able to

Further reading on the uses of can, could, (be) able to, and managed to

♦️Can: uses♦️

1- Permission: (We often use "can" to ask for or give permission.):

- Can take Daisy for a walk?

- Students can use calculators during the exam.

2- Ability: (We often use "can" to talk about ability to do something in the present or future.):

- I can speak some English.

- We can go swimming after school if you like.

📌 Notice: We often use can with verbs of perception such as "hear, see, smell, taste", and
mental process verbs such as "guess, imagine, picture, understand and follow (in the sense of
‘understand’)":

- I can hear you.

- Can you smell something burning?

3- General truths: (We use "can" to talk about things which we think are usually, but not
always, true.):

- Reducing cholesterol through diet can be difficult. (It’s not always difficult for everyone, but
in general, it is difficult.)

- Swans can be very vicious.

📌 Notice: (We don’t normally use "could" to talk about what we believe to be true in the
present). Compare:

- Exercise can help reduce stress. (I believe this is a general truth or fact.)

- Exercise could help reduce stress. (I see this only as a possibility.)

- Finding a hotel in August can be difficult. (I believe this is a general truth or fact based on my
experience or knowledge.)

- Finding a hotel in August could be difficult. (I see this only as a possibility.)

4- Possibility: (We use "can" to express possibility or to question possibilities.):

- I'm afraid I can't come to the party on Friday.

- how can you be on a diet if you buy so much chocolate?

♦️Could: uses♦️

1- Possibility: (We often use "could" to express possibility in the present and the future.)
Compare:

- It is blue. (I am certain that it is blue. It is a fact.)

- It could be blue. (I’m not certain that it is blue.)

- The storm will get worse. (I’m certain that the storm will get worse.)

- The storm could get worse. (I’m not certain that the storm will get worse.)

2- Permission: (Like "can", we use "could" to ask for permission. "Could" is more formal and
polite than "can".):

- Could I ask you a personal question?

🚫 Warning: We don’t use "could" to give or refuse permission. We use "can":

A: Could I leave early today?

B: Yes, you can./ No, you can’t.

Not: Yes, you could./ No, you couldn’t.

3- General Past Ability: (We usually use "could" or "couldn't" to talk about general abilities in
the past.) General ability means that a person had the ability to do something at all times and
in all situations. These are skills or talents a person once had rather than specific occasions. In
the past tense, English speakers almost always use “could.”

- She could paint before she started school.

- In high school, she could beat anyone in a running race.

📌 Notice: We don’t usually use "could" to talk about single events that happened in the past
(past achievements). When actual past achievements are mentioned, we usually use
"was/were able to" or "managed to" but not "could" in affirmative clauses. This is because
they are facts, rather than possibilities:

- I was able to/managed to buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.

Not: I could buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.

- We hired a car and we were able to/managed to drive 1,000 miles in one week.

Not: We hired a car and we could drive 1,000 miles in one week.

4- Past Possibility: (We use "could have + -ed" form to talk about possibility in the past:

- I could have been a lawyer.

- They could have taken a taxi home instead of walking and getting wet.

📌 Notice: We use "could" with some verbs to refer to single events that happened in the past;
with verbs of the senses (smell, taste, see, hear, touch, etc.) and mental processes (think,
believe, remember, understand etc.):

- The food was terrible. I could taste nothing but salt.

- We knew they were in there. We could hear voices inside.

♦️(be) able to & managed to: uses♦️

1- Specific Ability on one occasion – successful: (Specific ability means that the person had the
ability to do something in a specific situation or at a specific time.) When we talk about
achieving something on a specific occasion in the past, we use "was/were able to" (= had the
ability to) and "managed to" (= succeeded in doing something difficult).

- The burglar was able to get in through the bathroom window.

- The burglar managed to get in through the bathroom window even though it was locked.

📌 Notice: Could is not usually correct when we're talking about ability at a specific moment in
the past. The typical mistakes learners make are to use "could" for past positive specific
ability.

- My friend’s phone was engaged all day yesterday. Finally, late in the evening, I could speak
to him.

In this sentence, we should use "I was able to speak to" or "I managed to speak to" him.

- We ran fast and could catch the bus. (Wrong. "could" cannot be used to mean succeeded).
📌 Notice: “Was/were able to” and “managed to” both suggest effort. They mean someone
succeeded in doing something that was a challenge or took a special effort. However, the
phrase “managed to” puts a little more emphasis on how hard the challenge was or how
much effort it took.

Example:

When Jim was a boy he could climb trees very well (This was a general ability). However,
there was one tree that was very tall and he couldn’t climb it (the general specific rule is only
for "could" in positive so there is no issue here). One day, when he was feeling very energetic,
he was a able to/ managed to climb the tree (specific time, situation).

2- Specific Ability on one occasion – unsuccessful: (When we talk about a specific occasion
when someone didn't have the ability to do something, we can use "wasn't/weren't able to,
didn't manage to" or "couldn't".):

- I couldn't find it.

- I wasn't able to it.

- I didn't manage to it.

In the first sentence, you are admitting your inability to find it, even though it may be there.
The second two suggest further searching might uncover it.

- I couldn't find you.

- I was not able to / did not manage to find you.

"I couldn't find you" -- gives the implication that you couldn't find the person because of
some reason that is unapparent, but your fault.

However, "I was not able to / did not manage to find you" -- gives the implication that there
was some reason out of your control that caused you to not find them. Like traffic or too
many people or that they were hiding.

📌 Note that "wasn't/weren't able to" is more formal than "couldn't", while "didn't manage
to" emphasises that the thing was difficult to do.

📌 Notice: Sometimes, for the negative form of "managed to", we say, “couldn’t manage to”
instead of “didn’t manage to.” They mean the same thing:

- He studied for months but couldn’t manage to pass the bar exam.
Unit-27 could (do) and could have (done)

Further reading on the uses of can, could (do) , and could have (done)

♦️ SOMETIMES "could" is the past form of "can", the present form (see Unit-26):

Examples:

- I can smell something burning. (NOW, there is something burning.)

- I could smell something burning. (In the PAST, there was something burning.)

♦️ BUT "could" is NOT ALWAYS past. We can use "could" to talk about PRESENT and/or
FUTURE possibility.

Examples:

- Don't eat this bread; it could be stale. (PRESENT possibility)

- He has been in prison for two months, and could be released next week. (FUTURE
possibility)

NOTE: In these situations, we can also use "can" instead of "could". HOWEVER, "could" is
LESS SURE than "can".

Example:

- She can win the competition. (Future - SURE)

- Who knows? she could win the competition. (Future - LESS SURE)

♦️For UNREAL actions/situations, we use "could" not "can:

Example:

- I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse. (NOT I can eat a horse)

- I'm so tired. I could sleep for a week. (Not I can sleep for a week)

COMPARE:
- We can have some fish for dinner. (REALISTIC - MORE SURE)

- We could have some fish for dinner. (REALISTIC - LESS SURE)

- We could have a whale for dinner. (UNREALISTIC)

♦️ We use could have (done) to talk about the past.

Examples:

- Though the situation is bad, but it could be worse. (NOW)

- Though the situation was bad, but it could have been worse. (PAST)

♦️Something could have happened = it was possible, but it did not happen:

Examples:

- It's a good thing I got my umbrella. I could have been soaked.

- You could have done your homework, if you wanted to.

♦️ "I couldn't do" has two meanings:

1- It would not be possible NOW, I would not be able to:

- I couldn't walk a further step. I am really exhausted. (NOW)

2- It would not have been possible in the PAST, I would not be able to:

- I couldn't walk a further step. I was exhausted. (PAST)

Unit-28 must & can't

Further reading on the uses of must and can't (for deduction)

CERTAINTY ABOUT THE PRESENT

When making deductions about the present:

- We use "must" when we are almost 100% sure that something is True.
- We use "can't" when we are almost 100% sure that something is Impossible.

For example, Alex works from 8:00 am to 2:00 pm every day, now it is 10:00 am. We can say:

- He must be at work. (We are almost 100 % sure that he is at work because he has been
there since 8:00 am.)

We can also say:

- He can't be at home. (We are almost 100 % sure that it is impossible for him to be at home
now because he has been at work since 8:00 am.)

CERTAINTY ABOUT THE PAST

When making deductions about the past:

- We use "must have" when we are almost 100% sure that something was True.

- We use "can't have" when we are almost 100% sure that something was Impossible.

For example, John, who works from 8:00 am to 2:00 pm, was at work yesterday. We were
walking by his house yesterday at 10:30 am. My friend said: "Let's visit John". I was sure that
it was impossible to find him at home because he works at this time. So, we can say:

We rang his doorbell, but no one answered.

- He must have been at work. (We are almost 100 % sure that he was at work at that time.)

We can also say:

- He can't have been at home. (We are almost 100 % sure that it was impossible for him to be
at home at that time.)