UNIT 8 LAMINAR 'FLOW

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives

8.2 Viscosity
8.2.1 Role of Viscosity as a Momentum Transfer Coefficient
8.2.2 Molecular Exchange of Momentum - Kinetic Theory of Ciases

8.3 Navier - Stokes Equations of Motion

Exact Solutions of Navier - Stokes Equations
8.4.1 Hagen - Poiseuille Flow between Parallel Plates
8.4.2 Hagen - Poiseuille Flow from Navier Stokes Equation
8.4.3 Couette Flow
8.4.4 Couette Flow from Navier Stokes Equation
8.4.5 Combined Hagen Poiseuille and Couette Flows

Flow in Lubricating Film of Oil in Slider Bearings

Combined Hagen - Poiseuille Flow and Couette Flow along Inclined Plates
Laminar Flow along an Inclined Channel with Free Surface
Laminar Flow Through Cylindrical Tubes
8.8.1Hagen - Poiseuille Flow through Cylindrical Tubes
8.8.2 Use of Navier-Stokes Equation for Solution of Hagen-Poiseuille Flow in Cylindrical
Pipes

Flow in the Annular Region between two Concentric Pipes

Couette Flow in Cylindrical Coordinates
Rotating Cylinders
Torque on the Cylinders
Steady Slow Motion around a Sphere : Stokes Law
Setting Velocity or Fall Velocity of a Sphere
Measurement of Viscosity
8.15.1 Capillary-tube Viscosimeter
8.15.2 Odtwald Viscometer
8.15.3 Concentric - Rotating cylinder Viscometer
8.15.4 Fall Velocity Method

Summary
Answers to SAQs

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Though the property of fluid viscosity was defined in Unit 1 for real fluids, Units 4 and 6
dealt with motion of ideal fluids, wherein we obtained certain basic concepts governing
fluid motion. However in real fluids, the property of viscosity introduces shear stresses not
considered earlier and loss of energy which is an irreversible process. There are many
problems where the viscous shear force is of greater irhportance than the inertial forces such
as flow in capillary tubes, fluid layers very close to a boundary, porous media, and
lubrication films of bearings. The ratio of inertial force to the viscous force is known as the
Reynolds number whose value serves to distinguish the flow as laminar and turbulent. In
laminar flow, prevalent at low Reynolds numbers (for example, in pipes for values of Re
less than 2000). the fluid particles move in distinct layers, one layer sliding over the
adjacent layer. In other words, any lateral movement due to lateral or transverse disturbing
(inertial) forces are damped out by viscous damping forces. For larger Reynolds numbers,
the inertial forces can cause transverse movements of fluid particles from one layer to
another resulting chaotic motion known as turbulent flow. In the present unit, we shall deal
with laminar motion.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
* define viscosity and its role in fluid flow,
* develop Navier - Stokes equations of motion,
* obtain exact solutions of Navier Stokes equations as applicable to some
laminar flow situations, and
* determine viscosity by devices using the above principles.

8.2 VISCOSITY
Since viscous shear forces play a dominant role in laminar tlow, we start with recapitulation
of the property of viscosity. Physically, the difference between a solid and a fluid lies in the
relative immobility or mobility of the ~noleculesin them. Each n~oleculein a solid has a
fixed mean position about which the molecule u~ldergoesvibratory or rotary motions. The
molecule in a fluid ,on the other hand , by virtue of its mobility may translate in addition to
the other types of motion. The distinction between a solid and a fluid lies in their respective
behavior under the action of external forces. A solid has a finite tensile strength. A fluid
conforms to the shape of its container and can resist co~npressiveforces only when so
bounded and compressive forces are applied to walls of the container. When subjected to a
shearing force, a solid within its elastic limits attains a static equilibrium position whereas, a
fluid suffers continuous deformation no matter how small the tangential forces may be.
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that enables it to develop resistance to deformation under
the action of shear forces. Let a certain fluid fill the space between two closely spaced

AU

x-axis

stationary plate
Figure 8.1 :Sbeer Stress

parallel plates separated by a distance Ay as shown in Figure 8.1. Let the top p l a t e ~ ~ / n o v e
a constapt velocity AU by the application of a force AF, white the bottom plate CD
remains fixed. Under steady conditions tliere is a balance between external force AF-and
the internal force developed due to viscosity. Due to non-slip condition of real fluids, the
fluid particles in contact with the lower plate remain stationary whereas those particles in
contact with the top plate acquire the same velocity AU of the moving plate. The velocity
varies linearly across the narrow space between the plates. It was shown by Newton that the
shear stress (obtained by dividing the force by the area of contact of the top plate) was
AU
proportional to the velocity gradient ---. At any given point the rate of change of velocity is
Av
du
given by -
dy
Hence based on Newton's fmdings ,we write

where p is the constant of proportionality know11 as the coeflcient of dynamic viscosiry

' '
having the dimension of [ M L- T- ] . Here the first subscript refers to the direction of
the normal to the plane on which the shear stress is acting and the second subscript to the
direction of action of shear stress.
We consider the fluid element PQRS initially rectangular in shape at time t which
subsequently assumes the shape P'Q'R'S' at time t + At as shown in Figure 8.1 due to the
differential velocity between the two layers. P and Q' have moved through a distance of
AU . At relative to S and R respectively. The angular decormation of the element is A0 .
which from the geometry of the figure is seen to be (considering changes in 0 as positive in
the anticlockwise direction)

or the rate of angular deformation at any given point becomes

(10 - -
clu
clt cly

Therefore, Newton's law of viscosity can be stated that the shear stress is proportional to
rate of angular deformation. The coefticient ol' viscosity is dependent on the temperature for
any given tluid but is found independent of pressure in the ~iormalrange of pressure
variations. However at large pressures. viscosity has been found to be dependent on
pressure also.

Figure 8.2 :Shear s t m s in the x-y plane

111the d a n e x-y, if the velocity components t~ and v change in x and y directions, the element
PQRS at time t take the shape PQ'R'S at timll t + clt as shown in Figure 8.2.
The angular deformation of the ad-jacentsides. 'P and SR are found to be

I u
- ( l a = - - clt
3.,

The mean deformation of the element as a whole is given by that of the diagonal SQ

and the shear stress in the x-y plane being proportional to the rate of angular deformation

Similarly in three dimensional tlows the shear stresses in the zy and xz planes can be shown
to be (u, v, w are the velocity components in x, y & z direction respectively.)
It can also be shown by taking moments of the shear forces acting on the faces of the
element about the centre that

There are only three independent shear stresses acting on a three dimentional fluid element.

8.2.1 Role of Viscosity as a Momentum Transfer Coefficient

Consider a uniform flow in the x-direction caused by a constant pressure gradient @
dx'
Figure 8.3 shows a typical velocity distributiol~of u varying with y. The horizontal
momentum at B per unit volume is pu.

Figure 8.3 :Momentum Transfer

The horizontal momentum at level A per unit volume is [pu + d (pu)] and the change in
momentum per unit volume is d(pu). There is a momentum gradient or momentum potential
across the distance dy. This can be caused only by a shear force since pressure gradient in
the y-direction is zero. The shear stress acting on unit area must be equal to the rate of
change of momentum

~ '1
v is known as the coefficient of kinematic viscosity having the dimensions [ LT-
8.2.2 Molecular Exchange of Momentum - Kinetic Theory of Gases.
The.kinetic theory of gases outlines that the molecules of a gas are constantly in motion
with velocities, direction. and length of molecular path varying in a random manner. The
very nature of random distribution of these molecular travel characteristics ensures that
there is no mean motion of the gas as a whole on tllis account. We define the mean
molecular velocity as C and the mean free path of molecules as 1. Let us take an imaginary
surface AB (Figure 8.4) across which molecules are in motion both from locations above
and below the surface. Should the gas possess a mean motion with a velocity gradient as
illustrated in Figure 8.4, then the random motion of the molecules in a direction normal to
the flow direction causes an exchange of momentum across the surface AB. The molecules
in the upper layer possess greater horizont;il momentum than those in lower layer. The
transport of momentum from one layer to another tends to equalise the velocities between
the upper and lower layers.
Let us assume that out of N molecules present in a unit volume of gas. equal number of
molecules i.e., one third of the molecules ,N / 3 are directed along the three-axes directions.

Figure 8.4 :Molecular Exchange of Momentum

 Out of these N /3 molecules moving in the y-direction half of the molecules (N / 6 ) are
moving in a direction downwards and the other half (N / 6 ) are moving upwards across the
surface AB. If they are moving with a mean velocity C,the number of molecules moving up
or down in time dt is (116)NC dt dA and its mass is (116)m NC dt dA where m is the mass
of each molecule. At the upper layer, the molecules had a horizontal momentum of

l
and at the lower layer, the momentum is

The net transport of momentum transferred by tho molecules motion is thus obtained as
[

Since the rate of change of momentum per unit time is equal to the tangential force per unit
area, 'ryx, we get

since the density p ='Nm. .

1
A comparism of equations (8.1)and (8.6)reveals that p = - pC1
3
A more rigorous analysis gives the value of p = 0.499 pC1
The coefficient of viscosity, p is thus seen to be essentially a momentum transfer coefficient.
I
It has been shown that dynamic viscosity depends on fluid density, molecular speed and
molecular free path dimensions. We can therefore expect different trends in the variations in
I
the value of p for liquids and gases. For example, in gases the molecular activity increases
with increase in temperature leading to an increase in the value of viscosity with
temperature. In case of liquids where the molecules are closely packed, cohesion between
molecules is more important than molecular activity; Increase in temperature causes a
reduction in cohesion with consequent decrease in viscosity of liquids with increase in
temperature.
-
8.3 NAVIER -STOKES EOUATIONS OF MOTION
Earlier in Unit 6 , equations of motion for ideal fluids have been derived and we shall now
include the shear forces also. Let us consider a three dimentional element of sides dx, dy and
dz. For the sake of simplicity, we demarcate the normal and shear stresses acting in the
x-direction only as shown in Figure 8.X-

Figure 8 5 :Stresses in the x-Direction of a 3-Dimensional Element

 aa, &
The normal stress acting on face ADHE (area dy dz) is o, - --. ,and that acting on the
ax 2
20, dx
opposite face o, + --; tensile stresses are considered positive.
dx 2
a2 d
The shear stress acting on bottom face CDHG is z,,, - acting on area dx . dy while
ay 2
a2
the top face ADFE is subjected to a shear stress of ryr + -YZ &.The shear stress on the
a~ 2
near face ABCD ot area dx dv is 2,
a 2, 1
+7
dz
while the opposite farther face experiences a
a ~ z r dz
shear stress of 2, - -. - (it may be noticed that we have taken all the stresses into the
az 2 .
second subscript x). We have the equation of motion in the x-direction
mass x acceleration in x-direction = Forces in x-direction

du
pdxd,vdz;i;=(pdx(lydz)X+

- aondx d v d z + r,+ (
~ ~ ~ ] d x d ~ - ( . . dxdy
- ~ ~

+ (
T,+-
2 ; )
.- [
d x d y - T,--.-
]; dxdy

Where Xis the component of external body force per unit mass in the x-direction.
On simplification ,the equation of motion becomes

It can be shown (the proof is quite involved and out of scope of the present treatment) that

where y is the compressive stress acting on the element. It is the average of the three normal
stresses.
and

Using Ule expressions for z~~ and ,z from equation (8.3) and equation (8.8) for ,
a we get

on regrouping, we get

The last term on the right hand side is zero by virtue of equation of continuity for
ii~compressibletluids. Hence
 If we write V2 as the operator

The term v V'U defines the viscous force per unit mass and is known as the Navier-Stokes
viscous term. In ideal fluids, p = 0 and the equation reduces to the Euler's equation
described in the earlier Unit 6

I We can derive similar equations of the motion in the other two directions. For steady flow
au av alv
with which we are concerned in the present unit -= -= -= 0. Helicc the Navier-
at at at
Stokes equations in cartesian coordinates for steady flow of incompressible fluids are
au
x-direction: u-+ v-+
au w-=
au X-
ax a~ a~

aw
z-direction: u-+
ax
v-+
aw
av w-=
aw
az
Z-
P
&
az
+v
aZw+ ,a 2 ~-
a2w
I
X, Y, Z are the components of external body force for unit nlass in the x , v & z directions
respectively.
We can derive Ulese equations in cylindrical or spherical coordinates either from first
principles or transformation of coordinates. It is sufficient now to write the final form of
Lliese equations in the cylindrical coordinate system for steady incompresible tlow.
Radial direction :

Tangential dircction :

Axial direction :

R, O, Z being the components of external body forces per unit mass in the radial,
tangential and axial directions respectively.
Example 8.1 :
Show that the viscous terms become zero for irrotational flow of incompressible fluids.
Solution :
or irrotational flow . we have frocl Unit 4.

from which we obtain 22,

--
32,
- a2
and -= ~-
a 2 ~
33- a~ay aZ2 2x3~
 Therefore

= 0, by virtue to equation of continuity

Similarly we can show v2v= v2w = 0 for irrotational flows.

8.4 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF NAVIER-STOKES

EQUATIONS
The Navier-Stokes equations (8.1 1 or 8.12) are a set of nonlinear equations for which no
general solutions exists. However, for some particular cases of flow with simple boundary
conditions, exact solutions are available. In some of the flows presented in the following
sections, the nonlinear terms on the left-hand side of equations (8.11) or (8.12) disappear on
their own because of the simple flow and boundary conditions. We shall discuss the
solutions to these linear equations.

8.4.1 Hagen-Poiseuille Flow between Parallel Plates

Hagen, a German engineer and Poiseuille, a ph$sician interested in the resistence of flow of
blood through tubes were the first to investigate laminar flow through small tubes.

Shear
distribution
/

x-axis
-.

distribution
Figu1-c 8.6 (a) : Flow between Parallel Plates

We shall begin with a steady uniform flow between parallel horizontal plates under the
influence of a pressure gradient. Ln Figure 8.6, the distance between the plates is taken as 2a
and the flow is caused by a pressure gradient.
On the element of size dx dy and unit depth pressure and shear forces are in equilibrium
since the flow is uniform and there is no acceleration. The free body diagram of the element
is shown in Figure 8.6(b). The direction and magnitude of the stresses on the four faces of

Velocity
distribution

Figure 8 6 (b) :Freebody D i a g m of Fluid Element

 LrburRarr
the element are shown. Fluid above AB is moving faster and exerts a positive shear force on
the element, whereas fluid below CD moviug slower exerts ii negative shear stress.
Equating the forces

du
Since the shear stress in one dimension ~ y=, p dy
I
we have

@.
It is be noted that is a constant pressure gradient in x-direction and does not vary with Y .
dx
Integrating it once we have

The constant c, is found to be zero since at y = 0 along the centre line, thc velocity is a
du
maximum and hence -= 0
dy

The shear stress is linearly distributed. A second integration yields

1 dp y2
u=--- + C, ,
p clx 2 -
c, call he found by putting u = 0 at the boundaries y = _+ a

Hence the velocity distribution is parabolic

111e negative sign is attached to

& slnce
. the pressure gradient is negative (Pressure is
dx
decreasing in the direction of x). On the other hand if@ is positive, tho direction of flow
dx
will be in the negative x-direction. The discharge per unit width betweell ult: plates is found
by integrating the velocity across the spacing
 1%
The average velocity, V is given y

and the maximum velocity along the centrc line (y = 0)

Therefore,

Power input required to overcome the head loss Ahf over a length 1 of the plate is given by

Where y is the specific weight of the fluid

L
The forceonone plateis[ ~ ~ d x = ~L~ L - .L == A~ ~. a-a
0

The force on two plates is 2 Ap . a.

Power required may also be found by multiplying the force on plates by the average velocity

Which is the same expression found in (8.21)

Example 8.2 :
Choose the bottom plate as shown in Figure 8.7, as the x axis and derive the
expression for velocity distribution.

Velocity
distribution

Solution :
S- Figure 8.7
shear stress

To.-- IJ *a
dx x- axis

We are starting with the governing equation (8.14)

I
We integrate twice to give

1 The integration constant can be obtained by the boundary conditions

i
Therefore,

andlheshears.tssisgivenby r = y ~ = [ - ~ ) ( a - y i
d.v
SAQ 1
For steady laminar flow between parallel plates spaccd at 4 mm,p= 8x kg1ni.s
a~ = - 14 k ~ / mDetermine
and - ~. the discharge, nlaxiinum shear stress and
ax
maximum velocity

SAQ 2
Kerosene oil flows upwards through incliyd parallel plates at the rate of 2.2 litreslsec
per metre widh. Tile distance between the parallel plates is 12 nun and the inclination
of the plates is 25' with the horizontal. Determine the difference of pressyre between
two sections 12 m apart. Take p = 800 ke/nr3 and p = 0.0021 N sec / m2.

8.4.2 Hagen-Poiseuille Flow from Navier Stokes Equation

We can readily obtain the solution for the flow between parallel plates from the
Navier-Stokes equation (8.1 1)
a~
The flow is uniform and hence -= 0
ax
av
Hence from equation of continuity -= - -= 0
au
ay ax
v = constant, but since v = 0 at the boundaries, v should be zero everywhere. There is no
change of w with respect to z and hence all the nonlinear terms on the left hand side vanish.
The body forces X and Y are not present.
 a,,
x-direction : 0 = - -+ p -
a'~
ax a.?
y-direc tion : 0 = - ih?
dv
11 can be a function of x only: u is a fundion of v only and a constant pressure gradient
exists in the x-direction.
m e Navier-Stokes equation in x direction rcduces to a linear, second order ordinary
differential equation.

Which is tlie same governing equation (8.14) derives from first principles. The integration
continues as before iuid will not be repeated hcre.

Example 8.3 :
The wails of a water tank arc 0.5 m thick and walcr in the tank is stored to a depth of
1m (refer Figure 8.8). If the wall develops a crack of Imrn thickness and 20 cms wide
at the bottom of the tank. estimate the leakage
from the tank in one hour assu~ningthat tlie water 0.5m
n
level in the tank renlains constant.
7
p = . 0 0 1 Nseclnl', p=998kg/n13
Wall
Solution :
If q is Ule dischaqe/unit width

and from equation (8.17)

2 ~ 1=nmlor(1=-x-
2
'
1000
nl

Here p = 0.001 N sec / m2

The head of I m is dissipated in a distance of 0.5 m
Hence

= 5.868 111' 1 hour

20
Q = 5.868 x -= 1.1736 m3/hour = 1173.6 litreslhour
loo
 Example 8.4 : Lammar Flow

The bearing surface of a Telescope is lubricated by means of an oil

introduced under pressure at the mid point of a bearing as shown in
the Figure 8.9. Assuming two dimensional flow from an injection
slot. What rate of feed in litres per hour would be necessary to
preserve a clearance of 0.05 rnm between bearing surface suppotfing
0.05mm
a load of 10000 N1sq.m if the oil had a viscosity of 2 x N . s/m2.
The bearing is 40 cms wide.
Solution :
The maximum pressure occurs at the centre. 'Ihe lotal upward thrust
due to the pressure in the lubricating fluid is Figure 8.9

21PmaxX -
40
100
X 1 = 0.2 p,, per metre length of bearing and this should be equal to
the load from above.
0.2 p,,, = 10000 x 0.4 = 4000

p,, = 20000,~ / m '

I

The pressure gradient from the centre to h e exit end on both sides is

----
"- 2W00 - 100000 Nlm
dx 0.2
The average velocity V is found by equation (8.18)

with

= 1.04166 x 10- m3/sec per meter width of bearing

= 0.375 litreshour/meter width

8.4.3 Couette Flow

Couette studied the flow caused by the movement of one of the plates at a uniform velocity
U (as was the case in Newton's experiments on viscosity), h e other plate remaining
stationary. The f1ow.i~caused by the transmission of shear force from the moving plate to
the interior of the fluid and the pressure gradient is zero.

Top plate molving with

o constant velocity U

Constant shear stress.

x-axis
/ '0
Stationary
boundorv distribution
Figure 8.10 :Couette Flow between Parallel Plates

103
The x axis is chosen to lie on the stationary boundarymd the spac$lg between the plates is
2a as shown in Figure 8.10.
The only forces acting on the fluid element ABCD are thg sheat4orces on ihe opposite faces
AB and CD, and hence we have

--
dr - d2u = O. Since r =
--- du
-
d~ ciy2 dv
Successive integration yield?
u=c1y+c2
we have u = 0 at y = 0, with the result ~2 = 0
U
a n d a g a i n u = U a t y = 2 u : c1=-
2a
The velocity distribution is linear

and the shear s.tress is constant

U U
The average veioc?ty is -and the discharge per unit width-is - . 2 a = Ua
2 2
The force'required td'draw the top plate of length L at a uniform velocity U is

The power input can also be calculated by considering the powers supplied to the top'and
bottom sides of the element. At any point the power P i s obtained by the product of stress,
area and velocity.
P = 2 . (dx . 1) . u along surface AR
dP d
Along CD P + -dy =
dy
2 . dx . ut+ -
cry
( ~ u dy
) cix

The net power input to the element is thus

U
Substituting the expressions for r = @and u = - y
2a 2a

! 1
2
d
ciP = - (ru) ciy . dx = -
( l ~k&Y
!
4a2 dydx= @-dydx
(1~ 4a2
Integrating across the width & length L, we get the total Power
I
This value is the same as that obtained for the power to be supplied to keep the plate
moving at a constant velocity. Hence it is inferred that the power supplied to the plate is
b
entirely consumed by the internal power loss due to viscous shear.

8,4.4 Couette Flow from Navier Stokes Equation

L
I We may also readily obtain the solution to Couette flow from by direct application of
Navier stokes equation (8.1 1). Here we know that the flow is steady and uniform in the x
direction only and hence there are no'accelerations. The pressure gradient is also absent.
Hence we have
au
--
ax
- 0 ; v = w = 0 and &ax= (,

i
Hence all the tenns on the left hand side of the equation in x direction disappear and the
- -

a 2 ~Slnce'it
only term remaining on the right hand si& is p -.
.
is a function of y only,
a?

Successive integration carried out as before will yield

8.4.5 Combined Hagen-Poiseuille and'Couette Flows

In addition to the pressure gradient as considered in section 8.6, one ofthe plates is also
moved while the other plate remains stationary. We choose the x axis to lie on the stationary
boundq as shown in Figure 8.1 1.
Pressure gradient d P
dx
-
u

S t a t i ~ a f yboundary
Figure 8 1 1 :Combined Hagen-Poiseuillelu~dCouette Flows

The governing equation of motion is the same as equation (8.14)

which on successive integration give

We introduce the boundary conditions u = 0 at y = €and

I u = U at y = 2a
Ekir-1 The final velocity distribution is

and the shear stress

We could have obtained the solution readily by superposing the solutions for
Hagen-Poiseuille flow (equation 8.22) and couette flow (equation 8.24)
We can express equation (8.27) in the non-dimensional form

The expression f$ (- 2) is dimensionless and may be replaced by the symbol K

U 2a (8.29)

For various val~l.~

of K (or for various values of ,the velocity distribution areshown in
dr
Figure 8.12.

I I I I I Stationary platr
- 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

Figure 8.12 :Velocity Profiles in Combined flow

We may have the pressure gradient positive (the pressure is increasing in the x direction) in
which case the flow due to pressure gradient will oppose the flow due to the movement of
plate in the x direction and these can be reversal of flow.
The average velocity for the combined flow becomes

The average velocity will be zero if K = - 3

It is seen from Figure 8.12, that there is a reversal of flow for K = - 2 & - 3
 SAQ 3
Laminar flow takes place between the parallel plates 12 rnm apart as shown in
Figure 8.13.The plates x e inclined at 45' with the horizontal. For the oil of viscosity
0.85 kg1m.s. and mass density of 11260 kg/m3, the pressures at two points 11.2 m
vertically apart are 82 kNlm2 and 260 k ~ / when m ~ upper plate moves at 2.3 m / s
velocity relative to the lower plate but in the opposite direction to the flow. Determine
(i) the velocity distribution
(ii) the maximum velocity, and
(iii) the shear stress on the top plate.

Figure 8.13

8.5 FLOW IN LUBRICATING FILM OF OIL IN SLIDER

BEARINGS
The combined Hagen-Poiseuille and Couette flows are of interest in sliders bearings. The
Couette flow is caused by the movement of one of the bearing surfaces. The
Hagen-Poiseuille flow is caused by pressure gradient resulting from the slight inclination of
the two bexing surfaces. Due to the inclination, the spacing between the bearing changes
gradually
- with consequent change in velocity (or spatial acceleration in the x-direction,
u -.du
ax
However we consider the acceleration to be negligible and to this extent the solution
is not exact but very close to the real situation. With reference to the Figure 8.14 the spacing
varies from 2al to 2a2 over the length L, of the bearing and the inclination, a (being very
small) is given by

At any distance x, the spacing is 2a = 2al- a x

- Top surface moves with

a velocity U

city Velocity distribution & )a-k

d%
due Bottom surf- is stati&ry

I L - - - - - - 4
Figure 8.14 :Slider Bearing
m d ~ynrmia-I The velocity distribution at this section is due to both pressume gradient and couette flow.
Neglecting all acceleration terms, the preceding solution in Section 8.4.5 is valid
(equation (8.27))

Discharge per unit width of bearing

Solving for

Integrating and evaluating the constants by the condition p = po at x = 0 and x = L

Integration of pressure intensity over the length L yields the normal force/unit width of
bearing

Example 8.5 :
Two plane boundaries are 6 im apart, the space between them is filled with a liquid
of viscosity of 1.2 kg/m.s. What force would be required to move edgewise through
the liquid, a plate 3 mm thick and 25 cms square at a velocity of 15 cm / sec.
Solution :
The shear stress in the couette flow in the spaces on both sides of the moving plate is
" constant

25cm
-
Figure 8.15

where, p = 1.2 kg/m.s, U = 15 c d s e c , 2a = 1.5 rnm

The shear force on two sides of the plate 25 cm. sqare

F = 2x A = 1 2 0 x 2 ~25x25 = 15 Newtons
loo x loo
Example 8.6 :
The space of 10 mm between two parallel pl.ates is filled with a liquid of viscosity
p = 2.0 kg/m.s.. The top plate moves in the negative x direction with a velocity of
-2 m / sec. What should be the sign and value of pressure gradient so that the net
flow is ,zero. What.are the shear stresses at the two boundaries.
Solution :
For the average velocity to be zero the value of pressure gradient should be such that
(from Section 8.4.5) with 2u = 10 mm,U = - 2 m / sec, p = 2.0 kg1m.s.

TO is the shear stress at the bottom boundary y = 0

At the top y =. 2a

Example 8.7 :
In the slider bearing problem of Section 8.5 and Figure 8.14 the spacings 2al, and 2a2
are equal to 6 mm and 4 mm respectively and the length L = 100 cms. Find the
location and magnitude of maximum pressure on the bearing surface and the total
force. Assume the ambient pressure po = 0 and p = 2.0 kg1m.s. and the velocity of
travel of the bearing surface U = 2.0 m / sec.
Solution :
From (8.31) we have

The maximum pressure occurs whenh = 0 from which we get

clx

on substitution for q from (8.33)

Substituting and solving forx, we find x = 0.6 m, where the spacing 2a = 4.8 nlm
The maximum pressure is found from (8.32) with pg ='O
 The total force the bearing can support is from (8.34) 1

= 32790 Newtonslm . width

SAQ 4
A slipper bearing moves towards left with a velocity of 1.6 m / s. The data for the
bearing are L = 35 cm; a, = 0.04 cm; a* = 0.015 cm and p = 0.08 kglms. Find the
maximum load which can be sustained by the bearing. Also, find the maximum
pressure intensity.

8.6 COMBINED HAGEN-POISEUILLE FLOW AND

COUETTE FLOW ALONG INCLINED PLATES
If the plates are inclined, the body force component in the direction of flow also comes into
play, or in other words, the component of weight of fluid due to gravitation in the flow
direction should also be taken into account in addition to the pressure and viscous shear
forces. As shown in Figure 8.16 to the bottom plate is stationary and the top plate is moving
with a uniform velocity U. The plates are inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal direction.
The component of the weight of fluid in the element is y dx dy sin 0 Considering all forces
on the element shown in Figure 8.16, we have

(-

1
Figum (L16 :Combined Flow along lndiwd Plates k-~kis
I Since dx sin 0 = - dh and on simplification

The preceding expression is similar to the one derived for horizontal plates except that the
pressure p is now replaced by the piezometric pressure O, + y h). Further integration as
outlined in section (8.4.5)yields

i
and

We can derive the above equations from Navier-Stokes equation if we recognise lhat the
body force is due to gravitational action acting in the vertical direction. Its component per
unit mass in the chosen x direction along the bottom plate is X = - g sin 0 and in the y
direction Y = - g cos 0 and Z = 0. The equation of motion in the x-direction is

1I which is the same equation as (8.35).

8.7 LAMINAR FLOW ALONG AN INCLINED CHANNEL

WITH FREE SURFACE
This problem illustrated in Figure 8.17 can be considered as one-half of the problem of
Hagen-Poiseuille flow between two parallel inclined plates, the free surface coinciding into
the x-axis in Figure 8.6 (a). The depth of flow is taken as a.

L lnmr shear dir!;I'pution

L0
Figure 8.17 :Laminar Flow alang an Inclined Channel

The velocity distribution is parabolic

Since the flow is subjected to uniform atmospheric pressure along the flow direction @ = 0
dx

From the Figure 8.17, it is seen

dh
--
ah
= sin 0 = S, slope of the channel.

The negative sign is due to the decrease in bed elevation above a given datum in the
direction of flow. The expression for velocity can be written as
,u occurs at the free surface O, = 0)

The discharge per unit width, q is obtained by the integral

and the average velocity 4 ya2s

v = -= -
a 3~
The bottom shear stress du
~ o = p -1
dy y = a
= -yas

The shear stress induced by the flow on the boundary is y a S

Example 8.8 :
Two parallel plates are 8 mm apart and have an inclination of 30" with the horizontal.
The fluid filling the space between the plates has a viscosity of 1.2 kg/m.s. and a mass
density of 900 kg/m3. The pressume at two points 2.0 m vertically apart are
100 k ~ / and
m ~300 k ~ / m ~ .
Find the maximum velocity, discharge and shear stresses on the top and bottom plates
if the top plates moves (a) at a hiform velocity of 1.2 m / sec in the same direction as
the flow (b) at a uniform velocity of 1.2 m / sec in the opposite direction to the flow.
Solution :
From the results of section 8.6

du
Maximum velocity occurs at a location where -= 0 i
dv

Piezometric pressure difference between the two points is,

2
and this drop takes over a distance of 7 =4 m
sin 30"
and hence.
 = 1.2109 m / sec

= 0.0106 m / sec

Example 8.9 :
In a certain manufacturing process, a liquid of viscosity 1.5 kg/m.s. and mass density
1200 kg/m3flows down a sheet of glass inclined at 60" to the horizontal. If the
maximum velocity must not exceed 25 cdsec, what should be the limiting thickness
of the liquid film.
Solution :
From equation (8.39)

In the given problem um, = 0.25 d s e c , y = 1200 x 9.8 Newton/m3

S = sin 60" = 0.866
p = 1.5 kg1m.s.
I

= 8.577 x 10- m (8.577 mm)

 E l d d ~ ~ SAQ 5

One plate inoves relative to the other as shdwn in Figure 8.18, p = 0.05 kg/m.s and
mass density = 850 kg/m3.Determine the velocity distribution, the discharge and the
shear stress exerted oil the upper plate.

Figure 8.18

8.8 LAMINAR FLOW-THROUGH CYLINDRICAL TUBES

shall develop exact solutions of Navier - Stokes equations for the c$e of
cyliildrical tubes.

8.8.1 Hagen-Poiseuille Flow through Cylindrical Tubes

We follow the comentional cylindrical cosrdimte system y, 0, z. The z-axis being the
direction of flow @ perpendicular to the; - 8 plane. We designate the veloCity in the axial
direction, z as w.
i t h to thez-axis as shown
Comider the cylindrical element s y ~ t r i m l l y p l ~ ~ wrespect
in Figure 8.19. Since the flow is steady and uniform, the pressure, shear y ~ gravitational
d
forces acting on the element should be in equilibrium. p varies only with z and w varies only

Figure 1119 :Flow through Cylimlrical Tubes

From the figure dz sin 0 = - dh

- d p - y d l - - - 2 r~ d z - ~

Thus the shear stress distribution is linear;

I Noting that velocity decreases with r, we have

Integrating
r2 d
w=- -@+yh)+constantC
4p dz

Since

The final expression for velocity distribution is

which is a paraboloid of revolution.

?he discharge Q through the pipe is

?he average velssity in the pipe, V= -

Q
A

v=
nu2

='[-$(P+Yh))=
8P 8p2[-I
Y" dz(yE t h )) (8.46)

+ h is the piezometric head and is Ule head loss gradlent. Therefore, the head
Y
loss in the pipe in a length L of the pi
32pVL
hf = L=-- - 128 pQL (8.47)
r2 rd2 ynct
d
Substituting a = - and y = pg multiplying and dividiiig the rlght hand side by a I'actor 2Vwe
2
get after rearranging

hf = 64 v 2~

since IS the Reynolds number we write,

CI

(8.48)

This may be compared to the Darcy-Weisbach expression which expresses the head loss in
a length L of pipe of diameter d in terms of a friction factor and average velocity V as

, ~ L- v 16
~~ L Q ~
h -
f-d.2g n2d5,2g (8.49)