Social Science 3

Quarter 4 - Exam Reviewer

Date Revised: 05/–/2024

Prepared By: AK Alejandro

**terms to remember
**definitions
**summary

I. Restructuring the Postwar World (1945 - present)

1.1 The United Nations Organization

● Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
○ According to Folger (2021), NGOs are non-profit organizations that work
independently of any
government. Usually, they
function to promote
humanitarian and environmental
support.
○ Four (4) Categories
■ Charitable
■ Development
■ Advocacy
■ Operational
● Intergovernmental Organizations
○ The term intergovernmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created
by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on
issues of common interest.
■ Functional
● generally deal with a specific concern or issue.

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 ■ Regional
● general organizations
● deal with diverse issues at a regional level or simply
by a group of countries that share common goals.
■ Global
● general organizations that deal with diverse issues at the
global level.
● The Creation of the United Nations

○
● Main goals of the UN: (Sup, MD!)
○ Support sustainable development and climate change action
○ Uphold international law
○ Protect human rights
○ Maintain International Peace and Security
○ Deliver humanitarian aid

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○ General Assembly
■ the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of
the UN.
■ All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General
Assembly
■ the only UN body with universal representation.
■ Other questions are simple majority votes
■ One country = one vote
■ Resolutions are not legally binding
● SC are legally binding
○ Secretariat
■ Chief administrative office of the UN
■ carries out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the
General Assembly and the Organization's other main organs.
■ administers and coordinates the activities of the United Nations
■ headed by the Secretary-General
● Antonio Guterres
■ tens of thousands of UN staff members working at duty stations all
over the world
○ The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of
the United Nations.
■ The Court has a twofold role:
● to settle, per international law, legal disputes submitted
to it by States (contentious cases)
● to give advisory opinions (advisory procedures) on legal
questions referred to it by duly authorized United Nations
organs and specialized agencies.

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 ■
○ Security Council
■ maintenance of international peace and security

■
■ Functions and Power:
● maintain international peace and security in accordance
with the principles and purposes of the United Nations;
● investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to
international friction;
● recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the
terms of settlement;
● formulate plans for the establishment of a system to
regulate armaments;
● determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of
aggression and to recommend what action should be
taken;
● call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other
measures not involving the use of force to prevent or stop
aggression;

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 ● take military action against an aggressor;
● recommend the admission of new Members;
● exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in
"strategic areas";
● recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of
the Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly,
to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice.
○ Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
■ principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue, and
recommendations on economic, social, and environmental issues,
■ Implementation of internationally agreed development goals.

○
○ Trusteeship Council
■ originally created to supervise the 11 Trust Territories (7 from
Africa, 4 from Oceania).
■ Trust Territories
● mostly former mandates of the League of Nations
● territories taken from defeated nations during World War
II.
● no longer active (but it is still recognized as one of the UN
bodies) as territories became independent or were adopted
by countries.
○ United Nations Human Rights
■ The 30 rights and freedoms set out in the UDHR:
● the right to asylum
● the right to freedom from torture

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 ● the right to free speech and the right to education.
● the right to life, liberty, free speech, and privacy.
● the right to social security, health and education.

■
● Bonus Questions
○

Terms to Remember

NGOs Sup, MD!

Intergovernmental Organizations Security Council

ICJ and ICC Secretariat

ECOSOC Secretary-General

Trusteeship council Trust territories

UNHR

1.2 The Opposing Ideologies of the US and Soviet Union

● Ideology
○ a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are
as prominent as theoretical ones.
○ a system of ideas that aspires both to explain the world and to change
it.
● Cold War

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 ○ the ideological stand-off between two superpowers, the United
States and the Soviet Union, from 1945 to 1989.
○ While not directly fighting one another, each side sought to expand its
influence by keeping the other from spreading its form of government
(Communism and Democracy) and political system, resulting in many
proxy wars (Korean War and Vietnam War) throughout the world
(Campbell, MacKinnon & Stevens, 2010).
● The Yalta Conference (Feb. 4-11, 1945)
○ a meeting of three World War II allies: U.S. President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier
Joseph Stalin.
○ The trio met in February 1945 in the resort city of Yalta, located along the
Black Sea coast of the Crimean Peninsula.
○ The “Big Three” Allied leaders discussed the post-war fate of defeated
Germany and the rest of Europe, the terms of Soviet entry into the
ongoing war in the Pacific against Japan, and the formation and operation
of the new United Nations.
● After WWII
○ US and USSR were both considered superpower countries.
○ The United Nations was established
○ The US suffered 400,000 deaths but its cities and factories remained
intact
○ The USSR at least 20,000,000 deaths and cities were demolished
● Superpower aims in Europe

US China

Encourage democracy in other Encourage communism in other

countries to help prevent the rise countries as part of a worldwide
of Communist governments. workers’ revolution.

Gain access to raw materials and Rebuild its war-ravaged

markets to fuel booming economy using Eastern Europe’s
industries. industrial equipment and raw
materials.

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 Rebuild European governments to Control Eastern Europe to
promote stability and create protect Soviet borders and
new markets for US goods. balance the US influence in
Western Europe.

Reunite Germany to stabilize it Keep Germany divided to prevent

and increase the security in its waging war again.
Europe.

● Factors that led to Cold War:

○ Soviets Build a Buffer
■ Despite the promises made by Stalin at the Yalta Conference to
allow free elections, he had started turning Eastern Europe into a
between the Soviet Union and Western Europe.
■ Stalin feared that Eastern Europe could be the doorway for an
attack on the Soviet Union by the West.
○ Iron Curtain
■ a 1,393 km long line that separated Europe’s Soviet Eastern bloc
from the democratic
Western bloc. It was
made popular after
Churchill used the
term “iron curtain” to
indicate the existing
ideological differences
between the
Communist East and the Democratic West (The Iron Curtain,
2016).
○ The Truman Doctrine
■ On March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Truman presented this
address before a joint session of Congress. His message, known as
the Truman Doctrine, asked Congress for $400 million in
military and economic assistance for Turkey and Greece.

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 ■ “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support
free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures.” “… If Greece should fall under
the control of an armed minority, the effect upon its neighbor,
Turkey, would be immediate and serious. Confusion and disorder
might well spread throughout the entire Middle East.”
○ Marshall Plan (Western Europe)
■ US Secretary General George C. Marshall
■ Provided $12.5 billion assistance program including the
provision of food, machinery, and other materials to countries of
Western Europe.
■ The plan was a
spectacular
success. Even
Communist
Yugoslavia
received aid after
it broke away
from Soviet
domination.
○ The Policy of Containment
■ In July 1947, another foreign policy was adopted by the US, the
policy of containment.
■ The goal of this policy was to prevent further Soviet aggression
and to keep communism within its existing boundaries
(Spielvogel, 2005).
○ The Division of Germany
■ After World War II, Germany was divided into four zones
and was occupied by the Allies – the United States, Soviet Union,
France, and Great Britain.
● The Berlin Airlift

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 ○
○ The Soviet Union cut off highway, water, and rail traffic into Berlin’s
western zones. The city faced starvation.
○ Stalin gambled that the Allies would surrender West Berlin or give up
their idea of reunifying Germany. But American and British officials flew
food and supplies into West Berlin for nearly 11 months.
■ In May 1949, the Soviet Union admitted defeat and lifted the
blockade.
● Summary
○ The Cold War was a conflict between two dominant actors in the
international system-the United Sates and the Soviet Union. Regarded as
the world superpowers after World War II, the Communist USSR and the
Democratic USA continuously engaged in a struggle for political and
economic dominance that divided the world into two camps. The growing
tension between these superpowers even resulted actual blows resulting
to different proxy wars among their alliances.

Terms to Remember

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1.3 The Global Events that Reflected Conflict between US
and the Soviet Union

The Cold War resulted in division among countries and created new [Link]
did not remain cold because soon tensions grew between these superpowers and their
allies which resulted in different wars.
● New Alliances during the Cold War
○ In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was
formed.

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 ■ a military alliance of the United States and Canada with
other European nations (Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, France,
Belgium, Norway, Luxembourg, Portugal, Denmark and Iceland)
vowing to provide mutual help when one of them was attacked
(Spielvogel, 2005).
○ In response, the Soviet Union established in 1955 the Warsaw Treaty
Organization (Warsaw Pact) among its Eastern European Allies
(Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and
Romania) vouching to support each other (Spielvogel, 2005).
○ As the United States continued to limit the spread of communism in all
parts of the world, other alliances were also created.
○ Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
■ the alliance formed by US, Great Britain, France, Pakistan,
Thailand, Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand to stop the
Soviet communist expansion in Southeast Asia.
○ Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) was formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran,
Pakistan, Great Britain, and the United States to block the Soviet’s
expansion in South Asia.
● The Cuban Missile Crisis
○ One of the manifestations of the conflict between the US and the Soviet
Union was their involvement in Cuba.
○ In 1959, Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista was removed from power
and was replaced by the revolutionary Fidel Castro. The Soviet Union
was quick to support the new totalitarian government of Castro that
threatened the Americans.
■ In effect, President Kennedy supported a secret mission for some
Cuban exiles to revolt against Castro and his government.
■ It was an unsuccessful mission because many of the Cuban exiles
were captured and some were killed when they attempted to land
at Bay of Pigs in Cuba.

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 ■
■ In 1962, after the Bay of Pigs incident, the Soviets started to
install nuclear missiles in Cuba as a counteract of US nuclear
weapons in Turkey.
■ When Kennedy knew that Soviet ships loaded with nuclear
missiles were heading to Cuba, he cordoned off Cuba and
prevented the ships from entering.
■ The incident gave both countries time to find time to settle. In fact,
Kennedy agreed that the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev would
pull out the ships loaded with Soviet missiles from Cuba only if the
US vowed not to occupy Cuba. Thus, preventing a disastrous
nuclear war from happening.
● Korean War
○ In Korea, World War II ended dividing the nation into two: North and
South. The 38th parallel North was chosen by the US military as an army
boundary; in the northern part, the Soviet Union accepted the Japanese
surrender; and in the southern part, the US accepted the surrender of the
Japanese (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011).
○ In the beginning, the division was temporary however, the inception of
the Cold War led to the actual division of North and South Korea.
○ In 1949
■ the superpowers withdrawn most of their military in Korea, the
Soviets provided North Korea with resources in their attempts
of taking over the Korean peninsula.
○ On June 25, 1950,
■ North Korean troops launched a surprise attack on the 38th
parallel on South Korea. US President Truman was quick to help

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 South Korea as his policy of containment was put to a test by the
said attack.
○ South Korea found help from the United Nations to intervene in the
war.
■ The UN assembled an international force in Korea headed by
US General Douglas MacArthur to stop the invasion.
● The UN troops fought for the next two years to drive out
the North Koreans and the Chinese forces in South Korea
resulting in 4 million casualties including soldiers and
civilians.
■ A ceasefire agreement was signed by the UN forces and North
Korea in July 1953 and placed back its borders near the 38th
parallel making Korea remain divided (Beck et al., 2012a).
● Vietnam War and the Domino Theory
○ The US goal of limiting the movement of influence of Soviet communism
reached the countries in Southeast Asia.
○ US involvement in Vietnam was traced back to the idea of containment.
○ Vietnam was once part of French Indochina, a colony of France in
Southeast Asia composed of present-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
○ When Vietnam wanted to gain its independence from France
■ a young Vietnamese nationalist leader, Ho Chi Minh, asked for
help from the Communists. Ho became the leader of revolts and
attacks against the French by the Indochinese Communist
party.
○ The French were aggressive in arresting Vietnamese protesters and sent
Ho to exile.
○ Ho’s return to Vietnam in 1941, World War II broke and Vietnam was
occupied by the Japanese forces.
○ In 1945, the Japanese left Vietnam after losing the war.
■ Ho was thinking of their independence, however, France wanted
to gain back its territory.
○ The united Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists defeated the
French army.
○ France surrendered its military to Ho Chi Minh in 1954.

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 ○ After the French surrender, Vietnam was divided into two during the
international peace conference in Geneva. A demarcation line was set at
17 degrees North giving the northern part to Ho Chi Minh’s
communist forces and the southern part for the US and France
to set up their anti-Communist government.
○ For the Americans, the French surrender to the Vietnamese was seen
as a heightened threat of communism to the rest of Asia.
○ President Eisenhower believed that if Soviet communism succeeded in
Vietnam, there would be a great possibility that other countries in Asia
would also succumb to communism.
○ This assumption is called domino theory. It became a famous US
foreign policy during the Cold War period.
○ The growing popularity of Communism in South Vietnam made the
Americans increase their military presence by providing financial and
material aid to the South Vietnamese government.
○ In August 1964, President Lyndon asked the US Congress to send more
US armies to South Vietnam due to the attack of North Vietnamese patrol
boats at the Gulf of Tonkin that started the US-Vietnam War.
○ The Americans experienced difficulties during the war; they were fighting
a guerrilla war in a jungle terrain and the South Vietnamese government
whom they supported started to fail.
○ Beginning in 1969, American forces started to be pulled out in Vietnam
when President Nixon experienced intense public pressure because of
antiwar movements by some Americans in US.
○ finally in 1973, Nixon agreed with the Northern Vietnamese
government that US would withdraw all of its forces from Vietnam.
○ In the end, after two years of US forces withdrawal, Vietnam was reunited
by the Northern Vietnamese government and became a Communist
country.

Terms to Remember

NATO CENTO

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Vietnam War and the Domino Theory Ho Chi Minh

French surrender

Warsaw Pact The Cuban Missile Crisis

SEATO President Kennedy

● Cuban Exiles

Soviets Korean War

● Nuclear missiles

WW2 and Cold War result in Korea June 25, 1950

SK found help from the UN July 1953

1.2 The Opposing Ideologies of the US and Soviet Union

1.4 China-Taiwan Conflicts

● October 1, 1949 Mao Zedong proclaims the People’s Republic of China
● 1949 Chiang Kai-shek established the Republic of China in Taiwan
○ Son-in-law of Dr. Sun Yat Sen Leader of Kuomintang Nationalist Party
● One China Policy
○ the diplomatic acknowledgment of China's position that there is only
one Chinese government. Under the policy, the US recognizes and has
formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan, which China sees
as a breakaway province to be reunited with the mainland one day (BBC
News, 2017).
○ Lost its membership in the UN; Ousted from international organizations;
and even world Olympics
● Taiwan Relations Act (January 1, 1979) Public Law 96-8 96th Congress
○ to help maintain peace, security, and stability in the Western Pacific
and to promote the foreign policy of the United States by authorizing
the continuation of commercial, cultural, and other relations between the

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 people of the United States and the people on Taiwan, and for other
purposes.
● Why is China so fearful of Taiwan becoming independent?
○ “…The persisting separation of the mainland and Taiwan is also
portrayed as a hindrance to China’s reemergence as a great power,
which President Xi Jinping has dubbed the great rejuvenation of the
Chinese nation…” (Green and Glaser, 2017)
● Anti-secession Law of 2005
○ adopted by Beijing in 2005, sets forth three conditions under which
China would be justified in using “nonpeaceful means and other necessary
measures to protect China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity”:
■ Taiwan independence forces cause Taiwan’s secession from China;
■ Major incidents entailing Taiwan’s secession from China occur; or
■ possibilities for peaceful reunification are completely exhausted.
● Further fueling the conflict
○ The election of the pro – independent first female president of Taiwan
Tsai Ing-wen.
○ Due to her pro-independence rhetoric and continued military support
of the United States to this day, China incessantly wishes to enforce the
“One China Policy” through political, diplomatic, or military means.
○ “We will not accept the Beijing authorities' use of `one country, two
systems' to downgrade Taiwan and undermine the cross-trait status
quo," (Pres. Tsai’s speech, CTV news, May 20, 2020.) “Taiwan will be an
indispensable partner for the international community,” Tsai said (Nick
Aspinwall, 2020).
○ “Today I want to once again remind the Beijing authorities that peace,
parity, democracy and dialogue are the keys to stability,” Tsai said,
according to the AP. “I want the Beijing authorities to know that
democratic Taiwan and our democratically elected government will
never concede to threats. ” (Campbell, 2020).
● Summary
○ Historically the conflict and tensions between China and Taiwan started
as a war between ideologies. This transcended when both parties started
to establish governments which neither are willing to provide a concrete

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 consensus. Given the scale of the potential conflict and key political cards
at play our country will receive the full brunt of the resulting chaos.

Terms to Remember

October 1, 1949 Anti-secession Law of 2005

Chiang Kai-shek Tsai Ing-wen

One China Policy and 3 Results

Taiwan Relations Act

1.6 The Emergence of the Third World

● After World War II, the different countries of the world were classified into
three “worlds.”
○ These geopolitical groups first came out in the mid-20th century as a
means of identifying the players of the Cold War. According to historians,
the French demographer, anthropologist and historian Alfred Sauvy
coined the term “Third World” during the Cold War.

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 ● Characteristics of Third World Countries
○ low gross national income, which is manifested by high rates of poverty
and the lack of basic social services.
○ dependence on economically stable and technologically advanced
countries.
○ Low Human Development Index (HDI)

●
○ The HDI is a summary of key dimensions of human development
○ on a scale from 0 to 1.0, with 1.0 being the highest human development.
■ very high human development (0.8-1.0)
■ high human development (0.7-0.79)
■ medium human development (0.55-.70)
■ low human development (below 0.55).

Terms to Remember

HDI Anti-secession Law of 2005

Tsai Ing-wen

II. Global Interdependence

2.1 Globalization Pros and Cons

● Globalization

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 ○ term used to describe the increasing connectedness of other nations and
continuous flow of goods, technology, and other resources across nations
(Lumen Learning).
○ typically stress the “increase in interconnections, or interdependence, a
rise in transnational flows and an intensification of processes such that
the world is in some respects, becoming a single place.” (Kaarbo and Ray,
2011)

○
● Economic Globalization
○ refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a
result of:
■ growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services,
■ flow of international capital
■ wide and rapid spread of technologies (Shangquan, 2000)
● Political Globalization
○ the stretching of political relations across space and time;
○ the extension of political power and political activity across the
boundaries of the modern nation-state (Kaarbo & Ray, 2011)
● Cultural globalization
○ norms, practices, symbols, and values from one culture have spread
globally.
○ Popular culture is perhaps the most pervasive aspect of cultural
globalization (Kaarbo & Ray, 2011)
●
Pros Cons

Creates Opportunities May cause brain drain

● Brain drain
○ a slang term indicating
substantial emigration
or migration of
individuals
● The Philippines produced an

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 annual average of about
26,000 licensed nurses from
2012 to 2016, while about
18,500 moved abroad each
year during the same period,
according to government
data…
●

Brings forth diversity Creates global culture

● As more products enter the ● Global culture is a set of
global market, companies are shared experiences, norms,
pushed to make their products symbols and ideas that unite
stand out amongst their people at the global level
competitors. Weakens government’s
● This makes companies invest accountability
more in Research and ● gives multinational
Development to better cater corporations more power to
to the needs and desires of its control or influence policies
growing market. created and implemented by
● creates diversity in terms of other nations.
technology and innovative ○ weakens the control
practices used in production. of the government and
lessens its
accountability to its
citizens

Positive effects

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 ● Conclusion:
○ Globalization is a phenomenon characterized by the increasing
connectedness of nations. It has its pros and cons. Globalization creates
opportunities for growth and diversity but also causes brain drain,
cultural homogeneity and even weakens the accountability of the
government.

Terms to Remember

Globalization Political Globalization

Economic Globalization Cultural Globalization

Pros and Cons of Globalization

Brain Drain

2.5 Developments in Space Exploration, Communication,

Health, and Medicine
● Soon after World War II
○ the United States and the Soviet Union became locked in a global
conflict pitting democracy against communism. Space became a critical

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 theater in this Cold War, as each side competed to best the other's
achievements in what became known as the Space Race.
Space Exploration Timeline

1957 Oct. 4 - The Soviet Union launched

the first satellite, Sputnik, into space.

1961 April 12 - Russian cosmonaut Yuri

Gagarin became the first human in
space.
May 25 - President Kennedy
challenged the country to put a man
on the moon by the end of the decade.

1969 July 20 - Neil Armstrong and

"Buzz" Aldrin became the first
men on the moon.

1981 April 12 - Columbia became the first

Space Shuttle to be launched

1998 Beginning of the Construction of ISS

2012 May 22 - SpaceX, a commercial space

company, launched its Dragon C2+
mission to resupply the International
Space Station (ISS).
● Internet
○ a system architecture that has revolutionized communications and
methods of commerce by allowing various
computer networks around the world to
interconnect. ([Link]
m/technology/Internet)
● In 1928 Alexander Fleming discovered
penicillin,
○ did not realize the full significance of his discovery for at least another
decade.
○ eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in
1945.
● Edward Jenner was an English country doctor who introduced the vaccine for
smallpox
○ In 1801 , Jenner published his treatise “On the Origin of the Vaccine
Inoculation.” In this work, he summarized his discoveries and expressed
hope that “the annihilation of the smallpox, the most dreadful scourge of
the human species, must be the final result of this practice . ”
● Vaccinations against typhoid, tetanus, and diphtheria were created and saved
millions of lives. Using recombinant DNA technology Human kind also developed
biological chemicals such as insulin to cure diabetes

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 ● ncommunicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of
long duration and are the result of a combination of genetic, physiological,
environmental and behavioural factors. • The main types of NCD are
cardiovascular diseases (such as heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic
respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma)
and diabetes. • NCDs disproportionately affect people in low- and middle-income
countries where more than three quarters of global NCD deaths – 31.4 million –
occur.

Terms to Remember

Sputnik 1 Space Race

Economic Globalization Space Exploration timeline

ISS Columbia

Alexander Fleming Internet

Penicillin Edward Jenner

2.6 Promotion of World Peace and Preservation of Life

● World peace
○ a state or condition or perpetual harmony, understanding, and tolerance
among nations and men.
○ is devoid of any conflict, terror, racial, and gender prejudices that plague
the world. Traditionally global peace has been synonymous to the absence
of conflict and war.
● Overall GPI Score A composite index
○ measuring the peacefulness of countries made up of 23 quantitative and
qualitative indicators each weighted on a scale of 1-5.
○ The lower the score the more peaceful the country.

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 ○ The Global Peace Index (GPI) measures more than just the presence or
absence of war.
■ It captures the absence of violence or the fear of violence
across three domains: Safety and Security, Ongoing Conflict, and
Militarisation.
● World peace is marshaled by a dominant superpower and its partners such as the
“hegemony” or control of the United States and its close allies in policing
international affairs.
○ Hegemony is an international system with only one center of power to
be gained and retained in the form of military domination, economic
political chart, and central superiority which was enjoyed only by the US
after the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
○ being challenged by the rise of other superpowers in contention such as
China and Russia.
■ The concept of world peace veers away from this approach due to
the fact that global power becomes spread and contentious.
● War and conflict are not anymore the only real imminent threat to world peace
○ impending threat to the complete destruction of the earth and its
resources brought about by global warming and pollution
● Summary:
○ World peace is the perpetual harmony between all of humanity. The
concept have been advocated through the approach of a hegemon and its
coalition of like-minded states but the overall paradigm has shifted to the
attainment of world peace through the preservation of all life on earth
which has been perceived as a more pressing global issue rather than war
and conflict.

2.7 Years of Crisis: Nature and Scope of Terrorism

Terms to Remember

GPI World Peace

hegemony Space Exploration timeline

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ISS Columbia

Alexander Fleming Internet

Penicillin Edward Jenner

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