Medieval Pre

Pallavas
• Significant Personalities Associated with Kanchipuram (Pallava’s Capital):
1. Mayursharman: Founder of the Kadamba dynasty.
2. Dharmpal: Later became the head of Nalanda University.
3. Bhairavi, Sanskrit scholar- Simhavishnu’s court.
• Administration of the Pallavas:
o Pallava state was divided into Kollams.
o Land grants to temples- Devadanam.
o Land tax was a key source of revenue.
o Mamandur & Kudumiyanmalai inscription- vocal music.
o Dakshinchitra- compilation during Mahendravarman I, (Chittirakakarpulli).
Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)
• Highly centralized. Great maritime power.
• Art and Architecture:
o Chalukyas developed the Vesara or Deccan style in building structural temples.
o The Vesara style reached its culmination under the Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
o Use of reddish gold stone is a unique feature of Chalukyan temples.
o Notable Chalukya paintings can be seen in Badami cave temples and Ajanta caves.
o Temples at Badami, Mukteswara, and Melgutti Sivalaya.
o Navbhram group of temples, Alampur in Andhra Pradesh.
Rashtrakutas
• Rashtrakutas had a Kannada origin and used the Kannada language.
• Dantidurga- founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, performed Hiranyagarbha ritual.
• Krishna I built the magnificent Rock-cut Kailashnath temple at Ellora.
• Amoghavarsha: First follower of Jainism. Wrote Kavirajmarg in Kannada.
• Capital City: Malkhed or Manyakheta on the bank of the Krishna River.
• Administration:
o Centralized administration. Fortifications.
o Provinces were called rashtra under the rashtrapati.
o Hereditary revenue officials known as Nad gaundas.
o Rashtrakutas patronized Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Jainism.
o Religious harmony was a key feature. Women had considerable freedom.
o Royal ladies were allowed to attend the court on festival occasions.
o The Rashtrakutas widely patronized Sanskrit.
• Scholars and Literary Works:
o Trivikram wrote Nal Champu.
o Gunabhadra wrote Aadi Puran.
o Sakatyayan wrote the grammar work Amoghvriti.
o Veerachary was the author of Ganitaashram.
o Pampa was the greatest Kannada poet, and Ponne wrote Shantipuram.
o Svayambhu, a great Apabhramsh poet, lived in the court of the Rashtrakutas.
 • Art and Architecture:
o Represented at Ellora and Elephanta. Sculpture of Goddess Durga.
Pala Dynasty (8th-10th century)
• Literature and Scholars:
o The rise of Gauri Riti- new style of composition in Sanskrit literature.
o Sandhyakar Nandi- Ramcharita.
o Chakrapani Datta authored medical treaties, including Chakradatta.
o The author of the Dayabhaga School of Law, Jeemutwahwna.
• Bengali Culture and Universities:
o The evolution of Bengali language, and culture- reign of Dharampal.
o Buddhist poets composed in Bengali.
o 2 universities were established by Dharmpal: Odandpuri and Vikramshila.
o The University of Sompura was also probably founded by Dharmpal.
o The Palas patronized Nalanda University.
o The University of Vikramshila was famous for its Tibetan studies.
• Art and Religion:
o Pala paintings were influenced by the Vajrayana and Tantra pantheon of Buddhism.
o Pala rulers were Buddhists but tolerant of Hinduism and Jainism.
o Orthodox form of Buddhism was replaced by Vajrayana and tantric forms.
o Buddhist professor Atisha Dipankar Srijan visited Tibet to purify Buddhism there.
Women Rulers of Medieval India:
• Rani Rudrama (1259 AD) belonged to Kakatiya dynasty in Warangal, Deccan. She was the daughter of
Ganpati Deva. She married Veerbhadra, an East Chalukyan prince.
• Rani Durgavati (1524) defended territories against Mughal attacks, including Akbar, 1564.
• Chand Bibi: Daughter of Hussain Nizam Shah I. Married to Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur. When
Ahmednagar was invaded by the Mughals in 1595, Chand Bibi successfully defended it. Contributed to
making Bijapur a world trade center.
• Devi Ahilyabai Holkar: Advocated for widows’ rights to retain their husband’s wealth.
• Razia Sultana (1236 AD): Designated by Iltutmish due to her military skills.
• Nayamika: Wife of Satakarni. Featured frequently in the Satavahanas’ coinage.
• Sugandha (883 AD): Belonged to the Utpal dynasty of Kashmir.
• Prabhavati Gupta: Daughter of Chandragupta II. Married Rudrasena (Vakataka).
Delhi Sultanate
• Muhammad bin Qasim (712 AD): Invaded Sindh. First Muslim ruler to levy Jizya in India.
• Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030 AD): Looted immense wealth from Indian temples.
• Utilized this wealth for the welfare of his subjects back home.
• Alberuni stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab ul Hind.
• Firdausi wrote the Shahnama.
Slave Dynasty
• Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1210 AD):
o Slave of Muhammad Ghori.
o Military headquarters in Indraprasth near Delhi. Made Lahore his capital.
 o Known as Lakh Baksh. Patronized Hasan Nizami.
o Started construction of the Qutub Minar, Sufi saint- Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Iltutmish (1211-1236):
o Shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi.
o His Mongol policy saved India from the wrath of Genghis Khan.
o Received the Mansoor (letter of recognition) from the Abbasid Caliph.
o Introduced Arabic coins (silver tanka) in India.
o Created a new ruling class of elite military leaders known as Chalagani.
o Introduced the Iqta system.
• Balban (1246-1287):
o Declared himself the “God of Shadow on Earth”.
o Introduced rigorous court discipline, including prostration and Sijda.
o Impressed nobles by introducing the Persian festival of Navroz.
Khilji Dynasty
• Alauddin Khilji (1290-1320):
o Maintained a large permanent standing army paid in cash.
o System of Dagh branding of horses, Chehra, system of information about soldiers (Huliyal).
o Introduction of paying salaries to soldiers led to price regulations called market reforms.
o Established separate markets in Delhi for grain, clothes, sugar, dried fruits, horses, slaves, cattle, and
miscellaneous commodities.
o Each market was under the control of a higher officer called Suhnar or Mandi.
o Secret agents (Minhiyang) sent reports to the sultan regarding the markets.
o Cost of production was neglected as Alauddin’s sole motive was to enable his soldiers to live
comfortably even on moderately low salaries.
o Establish a direct link between states and tillers of the soil.
o Put an end to special privileges of chaudhari, khuts, and muqaddams.
• Measures:
o Introduced two new taxes: tax on horses and tax on all milking cows.
o First sultan of Delhi to introduce measurement of land.
o Department to look after land revenue: Diwan I Mustkharaj.
o Sent his army six times against the Mongols.
o Appointed Ghazi Malik as warden of marches at the North Western frontier.
o Greatest achievement: conquest of Deccan.
o Patronized poets like Amir Khusro and Amir Hasan.
o Built the Alai Darwaza at Qutub Minar.
o Constructed a new capital at Siri.
Tughlaq Dynasty
• Mohammed bin Tughlaq (1325-1351):
o Very tolerant in religious matters.
o Excellent calligraphist, knew Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Sanskrit.
o Transferred Delhi to Devagiri (renamed as Daulatabad) in 1327.
o Introduced token currency in 1329 due to a silver shortage worldwide in the 14th century.
 o People paid taxes in false coins, causing wealth for individuals but impoverishing the state.
o Increased land revenue on farmers in the Ganges-Yamuna doab.
o Severe famine and serious peasant revolts during his reign.
• Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388):
o Appointed Khan I Jahan Maqbul (a Telugu Brahmin convert) as wazir.
o Expeditions to Bengal were unsuccessful, resulting in Bengal’s independence from Delhi sulta.
o Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts and got them translated into Persian.
o Followed the advice of Ulemas in administration.
o Pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession. Levied taxes as per Islamic law.
o Developed an oil factory called Karkhana.
o Strictly imposed Jizya. Introduced the irrigation tax.
o Constructed the longest canal (200 kilometers from Sutlej to Hansi, known as Rajvahi).
o Another canal between Yamuna and Hisar called Ulugh Khazi.
o Abolished special taxes on 28 items against Islamic law.
o Introduced land tax collected only for taxes sanctioned in the Quran, and lowered trade taxes.
o Built about 300 new towns, including Firozabad near the Red Fort in Delhi.
o Repaired the Jama Masjid and Qutub Minar. Founded the city of Jaunpur in 1360.
o Created Diwan I Khairiyat to take care of orphans and widows, along with free hospitals and a
marriage bureau for poor Muslims.
o Paid for medical expenses of the poor and marriage expenses of poor Muslim girls.
o Patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.
o Intolerant towards Shia Muslims and sufis, treated Hindus as second-grade citizens.
o Increased the number of slaves.
o Created a separate department for the maintenance of slaves known as Diwan I Bandagan.
Sayyids (1414-1451 AD):
• Khizr Khan was appointed as the governor of Multan by Timur.
• He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• Mubarak Shah succeeded him after his death in 1421.
• Bahlol Lodhi dominated during this period.
• Prince Alam Shah (1445-1450) handed over the throne to Bahlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
Lodi Dynasty
• Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517):
o Brought the whole of Bihar under his control and attacked Bengal.
o First ruler to conclude a treaty with Bengal.
o Annexed the Shirque kingdom of Jaunpur.
o Implemented proper audit and accounting of income and expenditure.
o Visited embezzlement with severe punishment.
o Established an efficient system of espionage, Barid I Mumalik as the head of information.
o Abolished duties on grains and made them cheaper.
o Improved living conditions by providing food, clothes, and other necessities.
o Encouraged agriculture through various measures.
o Introduced new land measures named Gaz and Sikandari.
 o Provided free rations to the poor and opened free kitchens.
o Restricted the visit of Muslim women to shrines of saints.
o Prohibited the procession of Tajias during the festival of Muharram.
o Fond of literature and wrote verses in Persian under the pen name Gulrukhi.
o A reputed work on music titled Lahjat.
o Founded the city of Agra in 1506.
• Ibrahim Lodhi:
o Insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated them; nobles who revolted- death.
o Babur attacked Delhi and defeated him in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.
o No sultan of India except Ibrahim Lodi has been killed on the battlefield.
Delhi Sultanate: Administration, Economy, Society, and Culture
• Administration
o Only Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq & Firoz Tughlaq obtained Mansoor from Caliph.
o Sultan: Ultimate authority for military, legal, and political matters.
o Military Superiority: Remained a key factor in matters of succession.
o Law of Succession: No clear law; military strength played a crucial role.
o Naib (Deputy): Powerful position; assisted the Wazir (prime minister).
o Military Department: Known as Diwan I Ariz.
o Sarkhel (smallest unit of cavalry).
o Navy: Called Bahar, headed by Amir I Bahar.
o Special Slaves: Purchased for military service (called Bandagan in Persian).
o Sadar-us-Sadar: Minister for religious affairs.
o Chief Qazi: Head of the judicial department.
o Diwan I Insha: Responsible for correspondence and drafting royal orders.
o Diwan I Siasat: Established by Mohammed bin Tughlaq for a broader judicial system.
o Sultan: Highest judicial authority.
o Charkh and Falakhoon: Instruments used for throwing stones.
o Muqtis and Ikta Dars: Provided troops for the sultan.
o Provinces: Divided into Shiqs and Parganas.
o Pargana: Comprised villages headed by Amils.
o Land Revenue: One-third of produce; encouraged superior crops.
o Amir I Dad presided over the secular court (Mazlim).
o Mohammed bin Tughlaq founded the Diwan I Siasat to implement a broader judicial system.
o Iqta:
▪ Provinces under the Delhi sultanate.
▪ Each under a powerful military officer known as Muqti.
▪ Walis or Amirs enjoyed higher status than Muqtis.
▪ Muqtis and Ikta dars were responsible for providing troops to the sultan.
• Land Revenue:
o Khalisa: Collected for maintenance of the royal court and household.
o Inam: Assigned or granted to religious leaders or institutions.
o Land Revenue: One-third of produce; encouraged superior crops like wheat.
 o Horticulture: Encouraged by Firoz Tughlaq.
• Trade
o Centres of cloth manufacturer Devgiri & Devnagri, Deccan Delhi sonar gaon Dhaka
o Gujarati Marwaris, Oswals, and Maheshwaris were prominent traders in the north.
o Chettis played a significant role in southern trade.
o Banjaras were associated with Rajputana.
o Surat Hundis held great honor.
o Delhi served as a crucial trading center.
o Five categories of taxes:
▪ Ursh: Irrigation tax (one-tenth of produce).
▪ Kharaz: Land tax initially on non-Muslims, later imposed on Muslims.
▪ Jizya: Religious tax paid by non-Muslims residing in Muslim lands.
▪ Zakat: Religious tax based on Hanafi principles, levied on wealthier individuals.
▪ Khams: Tax on loot, war, plunder, and booty.
• Coins and Interactions:
o During the Khilji rule, one silver tanka was divided into 48 Jitals (50 Jitals during Tughlaq).
o No intermarriages between Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims.
o Hindus were considered Zimmis (protected people).
• Art and Architecture:
o Trabeate style (horizontal beam across vertical columns) used in temples and mosques.
o Arcuate form: Arches supporting domes.
o Quwwat Ul Islam mosque near Qutub Minar (materials from Hindu and Jain temples).
o Alai Darwaza: First true arch in India.
o Tughlaq buildings: Tapering walls, cheaper grey stones.
o Gyasuddin Tughlaq built Tughlakabad palace complex.
o Lodhi tombs: High platforms, octagonal shape, double domes.
• Music and Literature:
o Amir Khusro:
▪ Introduced Raags like Ghora and Sanam.
▪ Blended Hindu and Iranian systems to create Qawwalis.
▪ Invented Sitar and Tabla.
▪ Believed to be the inventor of Khyal.
▪ Wrote Tughlaq Nama, which explores the rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
o Dhrupad: Originated in the court of Raja Mansingh of Gwalior.
o Painting: Illustrated manuscript of Nimat Namat fused Persian and Indian styles.
• Literature:
o Historians like Hasan Nizami, Minhaz Us Siraj, and Ziauddin Barani.
o Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi contains Tughlaq dynasty history.
o Zain ul Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir, commissioned the translation of the famous Rajatarangini,
originally written by Kalhana.
o In Bengal, Nusrat Sahab, a ruler, patronized the translation of the Mahabharata into Bengali.
• Food and Clothing Innovations under the Delhi Sultanate: Samosa, Kebabs, Bread, wine, ice
 • Food from Portuguese Influence: The Portuguese brought Potato, tomato, groundnuts, corn, papaya,
pineapple, guava, rajma, cashew, sapota, Chiku, Cottage cheese, Cauliflower, cabbage.
• Unani Medicine System: Introduced by Muslim rulers in India during the 13th century.
Sufism
• Liberal reform movement within Islam originated in Persia, spread in India in 11th CE.
• First Sufi saint: Sheikh Ismail of Lahore.
• Sufis were called so because they wore garments of wool (suf).
• Patronized by both aristocracy and common people.
• Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti settled in Ajmer.
• Others: Bahauddin Zakaria and Shihabuddin Surabardi.
• Nizamuddin Auliya belonged to the Chishti order.
• Philosophy of Sufism:
o Emphasizes love, devotion, and self-discipline as means of realizing God.
o Service to humanity is tantamount to service to God.
o Inner purity is stressed over external conduct.
o Love and devotion are essential for salvation.
o Guidance from a pir or guru is crucial.
o Tolerance and practices like meditation, good actions, and fasting are advocated.
• Impact of Bhakti on Sufism:
o Interaction with the nirgun bhakti movement influenced Sufis to preach unity of God and self-
surrender while Hindu impact on Sufism led to Siddhas and yogic practices.
o Music attracted Hindus to Sufi dargahs.
Bhakti Movement:
• Originated in South India between the 7th and 12th centuries.
• Nayanars and Vaishnavites emphasized personal devotion to God as a means of salvation.
• Hagiographies of Alvars and Nayanars were composed during the 10th and 12th centuries.
• Shankar, born in Kerala, initiated a Hindu revivalist movement in the 19th century. His doctrine of advaita
(monism) was too abstract for common understanding.
• Rejected rituals and ceremonies.
• Condemned polytheism and idolatry.
• Emphasized bhakti as the sole means of salvation.
• Stressed the fundamental unity of all religions.
• Reaction against the concept of nirguna Brahman led to the emergence of the idea of sagun Brahman.
• Ramanuj preached Vishishtadvaita, where God is sagun Brahman.
• Shankaracharya- Pravrittimarga (path of self-surrender to God), invited downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
• Madhav (13th CE) propagated Dvaita (dualism) in Karnataka. World is not an illusion but a reality.
• Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were other preachers of Vaishnavite bhakti.
• Surdas: A disciple of Vallabhacharya who popularized the Krishna cult in North India.
• Mirabai gained popularity in Rajasthan for her Krishna bhajans.
• Virashaiva Movement:
o Started by Basavanna and companions like Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi in Karnataka.
o Advocated equality for all human beings and opposed caste-based discrimination.
 o Rejected rituals and idol worship.
• Ramanand:
o Born in Allahabad.
o Originally a follower of Ramanuja.
o Founded his own sect and preached in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
o Worshipper of Rama.
o First to use the vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
o Opposed the caste system and chose disciples from all sections of society.
• Kabir:
o Most famous disciple of Ramanand.
o Regarded devotion to God as an effective means of salvation.
• Guru Nanak:
o Naam Japna, Kirt Karna & Vand Chhakna
o He traveled to Sri Lanka as well as Mecca & madina
o Babur, Humayun & Sher Shah Suri were contemporaries of guru Nanak.
• Other Sikh Gurus:
o Guru Angad (Lehna): Encouraged langars (community kitchens) and widow remarriages.
o Guru Ram Das:
▪ Designed the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple).
▪ Akbar accepted langar during his reign.
o Guru Arjun Dev:
▪ Killed by Jahangir in 1606 for giving blessings to Jahangir’s son, Khusro.
▪ Wrote the sacred book Adi Granth.
o Guru Hargobind: Introduced military training for Sikhs.
o Guru Har Rai: Shielded Jahangir from a tiger attack and was later jailed by Aurangzeb, where he
died.
o Guru Harkishan: Became Guru at the age of 5.
o Guru Tegh Bahadur: Killed by Aurangzeb for supporting Ambar Raju.
o Guru Gobind Singh:
▪ Born in Patna.
▪ Fought against Aurangzeb and was killed in 1708.
• Chaitanya:
o Reformer in Bengal and Orissa.
o Added the musical gathering of Kirtan.
• Gyaneshwar:
o Founder of the bhakti movement in Maharashtra during the 13th century.
o His commentary on the Bhagavad Gita is called Dnyaneshwari.
o His devotional music compositions were known as Bharuda.
• Tukaram:
o Contemporary of Shivaji, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
o Responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism.
o Critical of all social distinctions.
 o His devotional music compositions are known as Abhangas.
• Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis:
o Criticized conventional religious rituals and social norms.
o Advocated worldly practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises, and meditation.
o Popular among low-caste communities.
o Known as jogis by Sufis.
o Main seats in Peshawar and Gorakhpur.
• Importance of the Bhakti Movement:
o Development of local languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, and Kannada.
o Raised the lower classes to a position of great importance.
• Features of Bhakti Movement:
o Concept of oneness of God and brotherhood of all human beings.
o Intense personal devotion to God with an emphasis on good moral life.
o Desire for chanting the Lord’s name and being born again and again to sing prayers.
o Pahull: Sanctified water offered by the master to the disciple.
o Sikhs- washing of swords ceremony called Khande ka Pahul, evolving as a Pir-Muridi custom.
Vijayanagar & Bahmani Empire:
• Vijayanagar founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangam dynasty.
• Conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom over the Raichur doab and fertile areas.
• Devaraya II was the greatest ruler of the Sangam dynasty.
• Krishnadevaraya was the greatest ruler of the Tuluva dynasty.
• Friendly relations with the Portuguese.
• Notable scholars at his court included Allasani Peddana.
• Krishna Deva Raya composed the famous Telugu work Amuktamalyada.
• Built the Vitthal Swami and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
• Combined forces defeated the last Tuluva ruler, Rama Raya, in the Battle of Talikota (1565).
• The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed, but the kingdom continued under the Aravidu dynasty.
• Administration:
o Ministers were from three castes of society.
o The office of ministers was hereditary, and the empire was divided into different administrative
units: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas, and Gramas.
o Governors of Mandalams were called Mandleshwars or Nayaks.
o Local authorities had full powers in administration.
o Various taxes (grazing tax, marriage tax, customs duty, etc.) were levied.
o Land revenue was one-sixth of the produce.
o The entire land was classified into wetland, dry land, orchards, and woods.
o The police track was known as Arasu Swatantram.
o The revenue department was known as Ashtvana.
o The well-organized army included cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants.
o High-breed horses were prepared from foreign traders.
o Top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars.
o The military department was called Kandachara.
 o The Ayagar system played an important role in village organization.
• Defects of Vijayanagara Administration:
o Provincial governors enjoyed too much power, weakening the central authority and leading to the
disintegration of the empire.
o Allowing Portuguese to settle on the western coast for commercial profit was a significant mistake.
• Social Life:
o Vipravinodins were artisans, and Kaikkolars were weavers.
o Sangam rulers were Shaivaites, and Virupaksha was their family deity.
o Other dynasties followed Vaishnavism.
o Shri Vaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular.
o Muslims were employed in administration.
o Muslims were allowed to build mosques and worship.
o The position of women was reasonably good.
o Ganga Devi, wife of Kumarakampani, authored the famous work Maduravijayam.
o Hannamma and Tirumalamma were world-famous poets of this period.
o Women also received training in wrestling and fighting and were employed as bodyguards.
o The devadasi system, which attached dancing girls to temples, was prevalent.
o Polygamy was common among royal families.
o Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur districts.
o Vijayanagara temple architecture combined features of Pandya, Chalukya, Chera, Hoysala styles.
o Soapstone and hard granite were used, interlocking them without mortar or cementing agent.
o Horse motifs were common in gopurams (entrance towers), and style resembled Tamil architecture.
o Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
o Virupaksha Temple is the oldest temple built at Hampi in a typical Dravidian style.
o Vitthal Swami and Hazara Ramaswamy temples, both built by Krishna Deva Raya.
o Vitthal Swami Temple (Vijaya Vitthala Temple) is famous for emitting musical notes.
o Varadharaja and Ekamparamnatha temples at Kanchipuram.
o Metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens are found at Tirupati.
o The Yakshagana tradition of dance and theatre evolved during the Vijayanagara period.
o Krishna Deva Raya was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.
o Pedana was distinguished in Telugu literature.
Bahmani Kingdom:
• Founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah in 1347.
• The capital was initially Gulbarga but later shifted to Bidar by Ahmad Wali Shah.
• Tajuddin Firoz Shah inducted Hindus into administration on a large scale.
• He took measures to improve the principal ports of Chaul & Dabhol.
• The Bahmani Kingdom reached its peak under Muhammad Shah III, extending the empire from the
Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, and from Goa to Bombay in the west and Kakinada to the mouth of the
Krishna River in the east.
• Mahmud Gawan:
o A Persian merchant who became CM due to his personal qualities, remained loyal to the kingdom.
o Constructed a college at Bidar.
 o A military genius, he was successful against Vijayanagar, Orissa, and sea pirates in the Arabian Sea.
o His administrative reforms aimed to increase the sultan’s control over nobles and provinces.
o His reduction of allowances for nobles led to a plot against him, and he was executed by the sultan.
o After his execution, the Bahmani Kingdom began to decline.
• Deccan Sultanates:
o 1526, Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into 5: Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Berar, Golconda, and Bidar.
o The sultan was the head of state, followed by the Vaqil, Wazir, Bakshi, and Qazi.
o These sultanates used gunpowder in battles and engaged in foreign trade.
Mughals
• Babur:
o Related to Timur Khan (from his father’s side) and Chengiz Khan (through his mother).
o Key events during his invasion of India:
▪ Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in First Battle of Panipat (1526).
▪ Defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa (1527) near Agra.
▪ Captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai.
▪ Captured Gogra in Bihar.
o Assumed the title of Ghazi after the Battle of Khanwa.
o His memoirs, written in Tuzuk-i-Babri, provide valuable insights into his life and times.
• Humayun:
o Defeated by Sher Shah Suri in Battle of Chausa (1529) and again in Battle of Kannauj (1560).
o Became an exile for the next 15 years.
o Married Hamida Banu Begum on his way to Sindh.
o Akbar was born in Amarkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad.
o In 1555, Humayun defeated the declining Suri dynasty and recovered the Mughal throne.
o Died in 1556 due to a fall from the staircase of his library.
o Although not a great general or warrior, he was kind and generous.
o A scholar in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology.
o Loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian.
o Sher Shah Suri:
▪ Introduced significant reforms in land revenue administration.
▪ Unique features included the Qubuliyat and Patiya systems, which aimed to prevent
oppression and exploitation of farmers by zamindars.
▪ Introduced new silver coins called dams, which remained in circulation until 1835.
▪ Abolished old and mixed-metal currencies.
▪ Improved communication by constructing important highways connecting various regions.
▪ Implemented the system of horse posts.
▪ Appointed Hindus in his army and promoted based on merit.
▪ Recognized India as a land for both Hindus and Muslims.
▪ Built a new city on the banks of the Yamuna River near Delhi.
▪ His mausoleum is located in Sasaram.
▪ Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during Sher Shah’s reign.
• Akbar:
 o Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar defeated Hemu after an arrow pierced Hemu’s eye.
o Married Rajput princess Jodhabai, strengthening the bond between Rajputs and Mughals.
o Not a religious fanatic did not brand Rajputs as politically inferior.
o Battle of Haldighati (1576): Rana Pratap severely defeated by Mughal army led by Mansingh.
o Did not destroy temples or images.
o Abolished the pilgrim tax (1562) and later the Jizya tax (1564).
o Factors contributing to his religious ideas:
▪ Early contacts with Sufi saints.
▪ Teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif.
▪ Marriage with Rajput women.
▪ Association with intellectual giants like Sheikh Mubarak.
▪ Two illustrators: Abul Faizi and Abul Fazal.
▪ Ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
o Adopted Hindu beliefs such as transmigration of the soul and the doctrine of Karma.
o Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri.
o Disliked interference from Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
o Introduced the idea of Din-i Ilahi (divine faith).
• Akbar’s Revenue System:
o Completed in 1580.
o Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
o Revenue was fixed based on the average yield of land over the past 10 years.
o Land was divided into four categories: Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, and Banjar.
o Introduced the standard management unit called Ilahi Gaj (based on Gaz-i-Sikandari).
o Asserted the produce per bigha of land and fixed the state’s share in that produce.
o Payment of revenue was in cash.
o The basis of land classification by Akbar was continuity or discontinuity of cultivation, without
considering soil qualities.
o Mansabdari System:
▪ Central Asian origin.
▪ Foundation of the military and civil administration of the Mughal Empire.
▪ Every officer was assigned a rank, ranging from the lowest rank of 10 to the highest rank of
5000 for nobles (raised up to 12000 by the end of Aurangzeb’s reign).
▪ Royal blood received even higher ranks.
▪ Mansabs were not hereditary.
• Jahangir (1605-1627):
o His rule witnessed several rebellions.
o His son Khusro revolted but was defeated and imprisoned.
o Guru Arjun, the 5th Sikh guru, was beheaded because he supported Khusro.
o Jahangir established direct relations between the Mughal government and East India Company.
o In 1612, Captain William Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited his court as ambassadors of James I
and obtained privileges for English merchants to trade in Gujarat and the right to set up factories at
Surat, Bombay, Kolkata, Agra, and Ahmedabad.
 • Noor Jahan:
o In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunissa or Noor Jahan.
o Her father, Itmad-ud-Daula, was a respectable person given the post of chief Diwan.
o Her elder brother, Asaf Khan, was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for nobles.
o Noor Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions.
o Encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
• Shah Jahan (1628 to 1658)
o Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the Northwest frontier to reclaim Kandahar.
o However, his Deccan Policy proved more successful than the one in the Northwest Frontier.
o In 1535, Shah Jahan defeated Ahmednagar and annexed it.
o The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign witnessed a bitter war of succession among his sons.
o Aurangzeb emerged victorious, defeating Dara Shikoh and securing his position.
o After defeating Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb entered Agra Fort, forced Shah Jahan to surrender.
o Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments within the Agra Fort.
o He lived for eight years, lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara, and passed away in 1666.
• Aurangzeb
o Expand the Mughal Empire into the Deccan region.
o Control local kingdoms and suppress rebellions.
o Dominate strategic trade routes in the Deccan.
o Assert Mughal authority over regional powers.
o Promote the spread of Islam and convert non-Muslims.
o Defeat of Bijapur: Aurangzeb defeated Sikandar Adil Shah and annexed Bijapur in 1686.
o Golconda Campaign: Eliminated the Qutub Shahi dynasty in 1687.
o The destruction of Deccan kingdoms removed the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas,
leading to direct confrontation. These campaigns exhausted the treasury.
o Religious Policy:
▪ Convert Dar-ul-harb (India, the land of infidels) into Dar-ul-Islam (the land of Islam).
▪ Anti-Hindu Measures:
▪ Temple Demolition; Jaziya Tax: He reimposed the Jaziya tax on Hindus.
▪ Religious Intolerance: Including Shia Muslims. He stopped Muharram.
▪ Sikh Persecution: He executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Tej Bahadur.
▪ His religious policies turned Rajputs, Hindus, and Sikhs into enemies of the Mughal.
Causes for the Mughal Decline:
• Invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali and Nadir Shah.
• Religious and Deccan Policies: Aurangzeb’s policies contributed to the decline.
• Weak Successors and Demoralized Army
• Financial Difficulties: Continuous wars strained the treasury.
• Neglect of Sea Power: The Mughals overlooked naval strength.
Mughal Central Administration:
1. Subas (Provinces):
o The Mughal empire was divided into administrative units called Subas (provinces).
o Each Suba was governed by a Subedar (regional governor) appointed by the Emperor.
2. Main Departments:
o Deewan: Responsible for revenue and finance, assigned duties and expenses to district Fouzdars.
o Mir Bakshi: Managed military pay and accounts, played a role in recruitment of soldiers, and listed
mansabdars (officials of various ranks).
o Imperial Household (Khan-i-Saman): Maintained records and requirements of the state, including
the karkhana (royal workshops).
o Sadar: Head of religious donations and contributions. Also acted as chief Qazi during Shah Jahan’s
reign.
o Dastur-ul-Amal: Rulebooks containing detailed regulations for controlling provincial and district
administration.
3. Local Administration:
o Sipahsalar or Nazim: Subadar directly appointed by the Emperor to oversee civil and administrative
responsibilities of each Subah.
o Daag Chauki: Conducted intelligence and postal services within each Subah.
o Vakai Navis and Vakai Nigars: Directly reported to the king, providing confidential reports.
o Amal Guzar: Revenue collector.
o Qanungo: Keeper of land records.
o Bitikchis: Clerks.
o Muqaddam: Village head.
4. Land Revenue System:
o Each cultivator received a title for landholding (Patta or Gubuliyat).
o Land measurement involved Kankut (measuring land) and Nasaq (rough calculation of payable
amount based on past experience).
5. Classes of Troops under Mansabdars:
o Dakhils: Regular soldiers paid by the state.
o Cavalry:
1. Bargir: Received arms and dress from the state.
2. Shiledar: Brought their own horses and arms (hara).
o Akbar’s achievement: Organized the best cavalry force in Asia.
o Infantry: Bandukchi (rifleman); Samshirbaz (swordsman)
o Artillery: Akbar- development of detachable guns carried on elephants or camels.
o Defects of the Mughal Army:
▪ Poor Discipline, especially among low-ranking soldiers.
▪ Army Camp Included family members and imperial harem, burdensome and sluggish.
• Port Administration:
o Independent of Provincial Authority.
o Governor of Ports (Muttasadi): Oversaw port affairs.
o Sher Bandar: Subordinate to the Muttasadi.
• Mansabdari System:
o The Emperor had the power to increase or decrease the mansab (rank and salary).
• Mansabdari System:
o Mansab: A grant to enjoy a jagir given to every official.
 o Jagir: Revenue assignment as a substitute for cash salary (not land).
o Mansabdars could collect revenue from their jagirs through the zamindars who collected dues from
cultivators.
o No Hereditary Claim: Upon the death of a mansab, no hereditary claim could be made.
o Duties: Mansabdars had to perform both military and civil duties.
o Exploitation and Corruption: The system promoted exploitation of lower-status people and
created selfishness and corruption.
• Types of Jagirs:
o Jagir Tankha: Given on certain conditions.
o Mashrut Jagir: Independent of any obligation.
o Inam Jagir: Assigned in homelands.
o Watan Jagir: Allocated according to rank.
o Jagir was transferable.
o No jagirdar was given a same jagir for a long time.
• Revenue Department:
o Maintained a record called Jamadam.
o 40 dam equaled one rupee.
o Jagirs were transferable, and no jagirdar held the same jagir for a long time.
• Observations:
o Deccan People: Wore barefoot, consumed rice, millets, and pulses.
o Coastal Region: Popular for rice, salt, sugar, and milk products.
o Tobacco and Potato: Introduced during Jahangir’s reign.
o Exports: India exported rice, sugar, and luxury items like ivory.
o Silk Weaving Centers: Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, and Agra.
o Glass Industry: Flourished in Berar.
o Pearls Industry: Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and Gulf of Cambay.
o Clay Industry: Delhi, Banaras, and Chunar.
o Arms Production: Punjab and Gujarat.
o Chettis on coromandel coast, Telugu Komati, Muslim merchants of Malabar most important trading
communities.
o Bengal exported sugar rice as well as delicate muslin & silk.
o Diamonds: Extracted from Golconda and Chhotanagpur mines.
• Art and Architecture during the Mughal Empire:
o Char Baghs: Constructed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra, and Delhi.
o Red Fort: Built by Shah Jahan, with Rang Mahal, Diwan I Aam, and Diwan I Khas.
o Buland Darwaza: Built at Jama Masjid to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
Mughal Painting: A Rich Tradition
1. Foundation of Mughal painting- Humayun, brought two talented painters from Persia: Mir Sayyid Ali and
Abdul Samad. Persian miniature art.
2. Akbar: Artists like Basawan, Misikina, and Daswanath held prestigious positions.
3. They produced exquisite miniature paintings based on themes like Mahabharata & Ramayana.
4. Akbar established an art studio where themes and stories were derived from ancient texts.
 5. Panchatantra & Hitopadesha became popular subjects for miniature paintings.
6. These paintings often depicted moral lessons, fables, and historical events.
7. Akbarnama and Color Palette:Indian colors, such as peacock blue, began to be prominently used.
8. Jahangir’s Reign and Notable Painters: Mughal painting reached its climax. Painters like Abul Hasan,
Bishundas, Madhu, Anant Manohar, and Ustad Mansur created masterpieces.
Fine Art:
• Tansen introduced famous ragas like Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi, and Darbari.
• Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah encouraged music in North India by supporting composers like Adrang &
Sadarang at his court.
• Musical Trinity—Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri—revolutionized Carnatic music.
• Persian was the official language of the Mughal court and gradually became widespread throughout the
Mughal Empire during Akbar’s reign.
• Notable translations- Sinhasan Battisi, Ramayan, and Rajatarangini by Kalhana.
• Shahjahan: Abdul Hamid Lahori- Padshahnama, and Inayat Khan- Shahjahannama.
• Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavad Gita into Persian.
• The most influential Hindi poet during Akbar’s time was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the
Ramayana known as the Ramcharitmanas.
• Urdu language developed in military camps of the Shia Bahmani kingdoms, also referred as Dakkhini.
• Mulberry, blackberry, lychee, sweet cherry, and peach were introduced from China.
• Arabs brought coffee to India in 1670, first planted in Karnataka by the Sufi saint Baba Budan.
• Kafsh footwear was worn by nobles and kings.
• Khurd Nau was a lightweight footwear made of kid leather.
• Lucknow was famous for its footwear during the Mughal period.
• Aughi represented the art of embroidery on leather and velvet footwear.
Shivaji and Maratha Administration
• Originally, the Marathas were small landlords and soldiers in the service of neighboring Muslim kingdoms
such as Ahmednagar and Bijapur.
• The Bakhar, written by Sabhasad in 1694, provides historical accounts.
• Sambhaji Adanpatra and Marathisahityi Rajniti, written by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in 1716, also
contribute to our understanding of Maratha history.
• Bhimsen’s Persian work, titled Nuska-i-Dilkusha, is an important source for understanding Mughal-
Maratha relations.
• Shivaji’s Administration:
o Shivaji’s administration was based on the administrative principles of Deccan kingdoms.
o It operated as a centralized, despotic yet enlightened monarchy.
o The Council of Ministers (Ashtapradhan) directly assisted the king:
▪ Peshwa: Responsible for finance and general administration.
▪ Sari Naubat or Senapati: Military commander.
▪ Amatya: Accountant General.
▪ Waqenavis: Managed intelligence posts and household affairs.
▪ Sachiv: Correspondence.
▪ Sumant: Master of ceremonies.
 o The title of Peshwa was of Persian origin.
o These ministerial positions were neither hereditary nor permanent during Shivaji’s rule and were
paid in cash from the exchequer.
• Revenue System and Local Administration:
o Maratha territories were divided into mauzas, tarafs, and prants.
o No jagirs (land grants) were given to military or civil executives.
o The mauja (village) served as the lowest administrative unit.
o Shivaji’s revenue system resembled that of Malik Ambar of Ahmednagar.
o He curtailed the power of existing deshmukhs and kulkarnis.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:
o The taxes collected were not within the Maratha Kingdom but in neighboring territories of the
Mughal Empire or the Deccan Sultanates.
o Chauth represented one-fourth of the land revenue collected.
o Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on lands that the Marathas considered their
hereditary rights.
• Revenue Collection:
o Initially, Shivaji collected one-third of the total produce as revenue.
o Over time, using other cesses, a consolidated share of 40% was claimed by the state.
• Maratha Troops:
o Shivaji’s most excellent troops belonged to the Mavalis and Hetkaris.
o The Maratha cavalry had two divisions:
▪ Bargirs, who were maintained by the state.
▪ Silahdars, who were maintained by nobles.
• Maratha Navy:
o Shivaji also maintained a navy consisting of thurabs (gunboats) and Galivats (rowboats).
o Seafaring tribe of Kol from the Konkan coast manned his fleet under the command of Admiral Daya
Sarang and Marnaik Bhandari. Daulat Khan served as another admiral in Shivaji’s navy.
• Ideology and Social Initiatives:
o The Maharashtra Dharma propagated by Ramdas, Shivaji’s political guru, influenced him.
o Shivaji referred to his kingdom as “Swarajya” (self-rule).
o Eknath and Ramdas highlighted atrocities committed against Hindus and worked to build character
and physical health among the youth.
o Shivaji built many temples dedicated to God Hanuman and established gymnasiums.
• Defense Against Aurangzeb:
o 1682, Aurangzeb invaded Maharashtra, Marathas valiantly fought to defend their independence.
o Aurangzeb eventually died as a broken-hearted man.
Science and technology in medieval India
• Hamsadeva’s Mrgapasishastra: 13th CE, unscientific descriptions of beasts & birds related to hunting.
• Jahangir’s Observations, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded observations and experiments related to
weeding and hybridization. He also described approximately 36 species of animals.
• Mathematical Contributions:
 o Brahmagupta, a great 7th-century astronomer and mathematician, introduced the concept of
negative numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortune.
o Bhaskar wrote the mathematical treatise Lilavati, while Sridhar authored Ganit Aashram, which
covers topics like multiplication, division, cubes, square roots, and mensuration.
o Gangadhar from Gujarat authored Leelavathi.
• Trigonometry Treatises:
o Notable treaties on trigonometry include Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, and Lilawati Vyakhya.
o Ganesh Daivjana produced Buddhavilasini, a commentary on Lilavati with numerous illustrations.
o In 1587, Leelavati was translated into Persian by Faizi.
o Bijganit was translated by Ataula Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign.
• Astronomy and Observatories:
o Nikanth Jyotirvid, courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introduced a lot of Persian technical terms.
o Daulatabad housed an observatory.
o Hakeem Hussain Gilani, Syed Mohammed Kazimi, Firoz Shah Bahmani established observatory.
o Mahindra Suri, court astronomer of Firoz Shah, invented the astronomical instrument Yantraj.
o Neelkanth Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatiya.
o Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh of Jaipur set up five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain,
Varanasi, Mathura, and Jaipur.
• Medieval Chemistry:
o The use of paper began during the medieval period of the Delhi Sultanate.
o Kashmir, Sialkot, Jafrabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, and Mysore were
renowned centers for paper production.
o The Mughals excelled in the production of gunpowder, which was used in firearms.
o Saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal were key ingredients in gunpowder preparation.
o Tuzuk-i-Babri provides an account of the casting of cannons during the Mughal period.
• Medicine and Diagnostics:
o Ain-e-Akbari outlines regulations for the perfume office of Akbar.
o Pulse and urine examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes.
o Sarang Samhita recommends the use of opilun for medicines and urine diagnostics.
o Medicines were prepared from metallic, plant, and animal products.
• Agriculture and Innovations:
o The Western Ghats were rich in spices, especially black pepper.
o Malwa and Bihar were prominent regions for opium production.
o Systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the 16th century.
o Tools like Rahats, charas (leather buckets). Dhenkli were used for lifting water with yoked oxen.
o The Persian wheel, introduced in Agra in 13th century, was known as Araghata in ancient times
and is mentioned in the Panchatantra and Rajatarangini as Kakavatakka aur ghati yantra.
Key Terms:
• Vishti: Forced labor.
• Rakhi System: Introduced by Dal Khalsa, offered protection to cultivators, exchange 20% of produce.
• Wilayat: Refers to the spiritual territory associated with Sufi saints.
• Madad-i-Maash: Tax-free grants of land.
• Watan Dari land: A holding system in Maharashtra similar to the jagirdari system in the north.
• Moksh aur Saranjam: Rent-free land provided for military service.
• Important Officers during the Sultanate Period:
o Mustaf-i-Mamalik: Auditor General responsible for state expenditure.
o Mushrif-i-Mamalik: In charge of accounts and receipts.
o Amir-i-Bahar: Controller of boats or head of the navy.
o Waqia Navis: News reporters.
o Amil: Revenue collector.
o Mir-i-Atish: Head of the ordinance department.
o Mir-i-Barr: Imperial officer in charge of forests.
o Mir-i-Mal: Officer-in-charge of the privy purse.
o Mir-i-Munshi: In charge of Imperial correspondence.
o Mir-i-Tuzuk: Master of ceremonies.
• Categories of Land during the Chola Period:
o Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmin peasant proprietors.
o Shalbhog Palli: Land for the maintenance of schools.
o Chandanam: Land donated to Jain institutions.
o Eripatti: Land from which revenue was used to maintain irrigation tanks.
o Mahatara: Head of the village.
o Pattakilla: Head of the village.