[Link] | #37 | JUNE 2024 £5.

99

NILE
Discover Ancient Egypt Today
~

THE EXHIBITION EDITION

DISCOVERING ANCIENT EGYPT
PHARAOH
TUTANKHAMUN’S TOMB: THE HIDDEN CHAMBERS REVEALED
SOBEK: The INSATIABLE GOD
MUMMIFICATION CORRECTED
 NILE

P haraoh, at the National Gallery of Victoria,

is the largest exhibition of ancient Egyptian
art ever shown in Australia. Over 500 pieces
have been selected from the collection of the
British Museum, including this one—a relief
showing King Mentuhotep II embraced by
Montu, a falcon-headed god of the Theban area.
Montu is recognisable here from the traces of his
headdress. Although human, pharaohs claimed
divine ancestry, and this relief shows Mentuhotep
receiving the god’s blessing.
Mentuhotep II was the founding pharaoh of
Egypt’s Middle Kingdom, ruling around 2055 b.c. This
decoration came from the innermost part of his
funerary temple at Deir el-Bahari, on the west bank of
the Nile at modern Luxor. It was intended to be seen by
only the most pious of eyes, and, fittingly, it is rarely on
display. This is a rare treat for visitors to the exhibition.
Behind Mentuhotep was a goddess, also endorsing the
king with her hand on his shoulder. A closer look at the
shoulder, however, reveals one too many hands. It may
have been an ancient mistake, originally covered up
beneath plaster and paint. The royal artisans were
fallible, after all—unlike their monarch.
More select pieces from this blockbuster exhibition are
featured from page 62 in this issue of NILE. Enjoy.

RELIEF OF KING MENTUHOTEP II WEARING THE RED CROWN.

EGYPT, THEBES, DEIR EL-BAHARI, TEMPLE OF MENTUHOTEP II. 11th DYNASTY, REIGN OF MENTUHOTEP II, ABOUT 2025 b.c. PAINTED LIMESTONE.
© THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. ACC. NO. EA 1397.

[Link] 1
 NILE

35
KV 62: THE

52 62
EVIDENCE
FOR HIDDEN
CHAMBERS

15 22
MATTHEW
MCGOVERN WHO IS
Just when SOBEK? PHARAOH:
you thought
Tutankhamun’s
CHRISTIAN CASEY THE
GRANARIES Burial Chamber The ancient EXHIBITION
AS GLYPHS VITAL had revealed all of Egyptians didn’t
JEFF BURZACOTT
BRIAN ALM
ORGANS its secrets. Matt just fear crocodiles,
McGovern provides they also revered The British
SOFIA AZIZ
Could a mysterious a follow-up to his them, especially in Museum’s biggest-
feature on models What if some of article in NILE #36 the form of the god ever travelling
of granaries be a the things we with even more Sobek. But why exhibition focusses
symbol for the thought we knew astonishing details worship the animal on the most iconic
eternal cycle of about mummifica- from the boy-king’s they were most figure in ancient
death and rebirth? tion were wrong? Burial Chamber. terrified of? Egypt: the pharaoh.

2 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 NILE
COVER STORY #37
June 2024
4 Map of Egypt
5 Timeline
51 Nile Style
66 Looking Back
IMAGE © RIJKSMUSEUM VAN OUDHEDEN, LEIDEN, THE NETHERLANDS. INV. NO. [Link].3–b

67 Exhibitions & Events

68 Coming Up
68 Contact NILE
69 Back Issues

DISCOVERING
69 SUBSCRIBE
& SAVE!
ANCIENT
Get NILE Magazine
EGYPT delivered to your door
Angharad Dafydd and save over 20%.
Every 6th magazine is
The Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
free!
in Leiden, the Netherlands, holds
one of the world’s finest collec- See page 69 for your

6
tions of Egyptian antiquities. Some fabulous subscription
of its finest treasures are now on offer.
show in a travelling exhibition. We
feature the starring attractions.

- FROM THE EDITOR

W
elcome to a special edition of
NILE Magazine, featuring two
blockbuster exhibitions.
Australia is a loooong way from, well,
anywhere really, so when major exhibitions
drawn from the collections of the Rijks-
museum van Oudheden in Leiden and
London’s British Museum make the journey
south, they are very well received.
One of the things I love about the British
Museum exhibition at the National Gallery
of Victoria is the special children’s section,
with hands-on activities like building a
pyramid and even learning hieroglyphs!
Here comes the next crop of Egyptologists.
As always, I hope you thoroughly enjoy
your NILE time.
Jeff Burzacott ~
editor@[Link]

(RIGHT)
ANCIENT EGYPT FOR KIDS, on display until 6 October 2024
at NGV International, Melbourne.
Photo: Tom Ross.

[Link] 3
 Angharad Dafydd & Jeff Burzacott

DISCOV ERING
ANCIENT EGYPT
at the National Museum of Australia

IMAGE © RIJKSMUSEUM VAN OUDHEDEN, LEIDEN, THE NETHERLANDS. INV. NO. AMM 2-c

(ABOVE) (OPPOSITE)
Troubles around the Mediterranean during Egypt’s Third This wooden outer coffin belongs to Panesy, a priest of
Intermediate Period (ca. 1069–747 b.c.) saw trade routes the Karnak Temple during the 22nd Dynasty. The coffin
collapse, resulting in shortages of the luxury materials is almost entirely painted black, which had a positive
needed for rich burials. The pharaohs turned to meaning in ancient Egypt rather than being associated
plundering the tombs of their predecessors, while for the with mourning as it is today. Black was reminiscent of
non-royal, attention shifted to one essential item: the the new life made possible by the dark mud brought
coffin, which now became elaborately decorated. The downriver during the annual flood. Panesy’s face was
cartonnage coffin (layers of linen stuck together with carved separately from more expensive wood and left
plaster) in the foreground belonged to a woman named unadorned. Panesy also had a brightly painted carton-
Nehemsu, who lived during Egypt’s 22nd Dynasty. nage inner coffin, similar to Nehemsu’s, above.

T
he Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (RMO) in Leiden, civilisation whose monuments touched the skies and
the Netherlands, holds one of the world’s finest whose culture changed our way of life. It has gathered
collections of Egyptian antiquities. More than 220 together priceless treasures that adorned the Egyptians
of the RMO’s finest treasures are currently on show in in life and prepared them for the afterlife: exquisite
Discovering Ancient Egypt at the National Museum of jewellery, sculpture and pottery, as well as an array of
Australia in Canberra, the country’s capital city. stunning funerary material. This special feature show-
The exhibition invites museum visitors to discover a cases some of the exhibition’s starring attractions.

6 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

IMAGE © RIJKSMUSEUM VAN OUDHEDEN,
LEIDEN, THE NETHERLANDS. INV. NO. [Link].3–b

[Link] 7
 IMAGE © RIJKSMUSEUM VAN OUDHEDEN, LEIDEN, THE NETHERLANDS. INV. NO. RA 58A

BOOK OF THE DEAD OF PADIKHONSU

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD, 21st Dynasty,
ca. 850 b.c.
How did ancient Egyptians reach the afterlife?
A collection of spells was developed to safeguard
this critical passage and prove that the deceased
was worthy of Osiris’ company. The Egyptians
called this the “Book of Going Forth by Day”.
Today, we know it as the Egyptian ‘Book of
the Dead’.
This papyrus sheet was cut from a Book of
the Dead that the priest Padikhonsu took into
his tomb. Padikhonsu is depicted twice:
praising Ra-Horakhty on the right and Isis
and Osiris on the left.
The gods were continually worshipped and
granted offerings in thanks for their goodwill
and the power to grant eternal life. Here, the
tables before the gods are piled high with
offerings. The text above Padikhonsu facing Isis
and Osiris reads:

]t?c
& 2 L
}

“I will give you clothing, incense, unguent,

< LL t <
! "
made with two unguent vases for Osiris,
< R \! t 1. !
" ! ! t b
Osiris’ skin is coloured green to represent fertility and
(by) the Osiris, caretaker of the chamber of Amun,
rebirth. As king of the underworld, he is equipped with
the crook and flail that came to be regarded as the
H! ]Kt B7 L {
insignia of pharaonic authority.
Osiris’s sister/wife, Isis, stands by him crowned with Padikhonsu, True of Voice.”
a solar disc and cow horns. These are also attributes of
the goddess Hathor, so the text in front of her ensures
there is no confusion: “Words spoken by Isis”. It is Padikhonsu’s hope that he is identified with Osiris
and thus shares the god’s power of eternal rebirth.

8 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 DS. INV. NO. AM 7-c
EN, THE NETHERLAN
M VAN OUDHEDEN, LEID
IMAGE © RIJKSMUSEU

PYRAMIDION OF PAUTY
NEW KINGDOM, 19th Dynasty, ca. 1300 b.c.
Initially, pyramid tombs were with Pauty raising his hands in
M
_$ \ Vb H P /
reserved for the king alone. During adoration of Atum, an aspect of Re
the New Kingdom, however, the h representing the setting sun. The
pharaohs went underground and “Worshipping Re at his setting east-facing side of the pyramidion
chose the Valley of the Kings for shows Pauty worshipping the
P l! 9! t #!
their (supposedly) secure forever
! j ! R rejuvenated rising sun, pictured as
homes. Small, mud-brick pyramids b the falcon god Re-Horakhty (“Horus
were instead built over the tombs of in the western horizon of the sky, of the Horizon”).
the most important non-royal ! m+ Pauty’s pyramidion, thought to
persons. These were often crowned
by pyramid-shaped capstones
PH P \
U \ have been unearthed at Saqqara,
was deliberately positioned to catch
known as pyramidions. Atum is in appearance.” the dawn’s first light and the day’s
This limestone pyramidion once final rays. The royal scribe, there-
topped the mud-brick pyramid of The hieroglyphic text on Pauty’s carved fore, could share in the sun’s
the royal scribe Pauty. The side pyramidion describes the carved image of overnight rebirth and then triumph
shown here would have faced west, the scribe adoring the god Atum. over death at sunrise.

[Link] 11
WHAT ARE THOSE GRANARY MODELS SAYING,
FROM THE ROOFTOPS?

G RANARIE
A S G L Y P H S S

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART. ROGERS FUND AND EDWARD S. HARKNESS GIFT, 1920. ACC. NO. 20.3.11

BRIAN ALM
The peaked corners that appear on the ancient Egyptian granary models,
placed in the tombs of the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom to
serve the eternal appetite of the tomb owner, raise questions:
What were these elevated, triangular corners for?
Did they have a practical purpose?
Or, if they were symbolic, what did they mean?

T
he ancient Egyptians very rarely did anything for Period’s 9th Dynasty. Clearly the motif was conven-
simply decorative purposes, so right from the start tional by that time, around 2200 b.c.
we can probably rule out art for art’s sake. We see The simple answer, before we go on, is that the peaked
these peaked corners exclusively in the models of corners were symbolic of the hieroglyph for granary:
granaries, and primarily those of the Middle Kingdom, shenut —a pile of grain on a raised mud floor with
culminating in the 12th Dynasty. There are, however, up-turned, peaked corners. But let’s not be content with
examples from as early as the First Intermediate that simplicity quite yet.

[Link] 15
 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART. GIFT OF THEODORE M. DAVIS, 1914. ACC. NO. 14.6.232

This sandstone window grill was discovered in the throne framed by the symbols for sky pet R and land ta b ,
room of the palace of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. proclaiming that the king was ruler of heaven, earth and
Originally placed high on a wall, the grill allowed only everything inbetween. Could an upturned version of pet,
indirect light to enter the room. Ramesses III’s window grill representing the life-giving rays of the sun provide the
is packed with symbolism. The royal cartouches are meaning for the peaked corners of granary models?

peaks at the corners of a flat roof and the roofline itself pet above and ta below. Many pectorals and counter-
do suggest the bar-and-hook hieroglyph for “sky”, pet poises of the Middle and New Kingdoms are likewise
R , albeit inverted. The ancient Egyptian word for constructed to contain a message within the frame of
“land,” ta b , is simply a bar without the hooks. It heaven and earth. The roof of a granary and the comple-
doesn’t take much imagination to picture the ta glyph mentary sky suggest a frame, quite like a pectoral.
with upturned hooks, complementing the sky in a typi- Angela Tooley, author of the book Egyptian Models
cally Egyptian duality. The coupling of ta and pet created and Scenes, was kind enough to review an early draft of
a potent symbol of fertility, representing the land from this article and cited “the winnowing scenes where the
which the grain grows, and above it the sky, which pro- grain is piled to either side of a hollow, a little like the
vided life-giving luminosity. In ancient Egypt, symbols horizon glyph,” (see top of facing page). That glyph, akhet
of fertility were aligned with the idea of eternal self- l, is not suggested as obviously as is the ta bar in the
regeneration, just as the sun springs forth above the roofline, but, as noted earlier, the Egyptians did incor-
horizon each morning (more on this later). porate glyphs meaningfully in architecture—temple
There are precedents for such graphic expression, pylons come to mind, cradling the sun like the akhet
of course: the window grill of Ramesses III from Medinet glyph—and ideologically it makes a lot of sense. The
Habu, for instance (above), is framed by the glyphs for akhet glyph can be discerned in this architecture, too,

18 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 It may be that the
peaked corners
on granaries were
reminiscent of the
akhet hieroglyph
( l ), which is
comprised of two
mountain peaks
with a sun-disc
resting between
them. Being solar
related, this sign
was a potent
symbol of rebirth
with every dawn.
Here, the akhet
is combined with
the deity Aker,
shown as two
lions guarding the
eastern and
PAPYRUS OF ANI, 19TH DYNASTY. BRITISH MUSEUM. western horizons.
PHOTO: DUNCAN1890, [Link]

And this is what

the Egyptians saw
as the sun burst
forth above the
eastern horizon:
a powerful symbol
of creation.
This image shows
the rising sun
through the peaks
of the Royal Wadi
at Amarna. It may
be that this
resemblance to
the akhet sign
inspired King
Akhenaten to
choose Amarna
as the location
of his sparkling
new royal city.
© KELLY A. CUMMINGS

The distinctive
pylons that front
Egyptian temples
suggest a giant
akhet symbol,
whereby the
rejuvenated sun
shares its creative
energies with the
temple, the gods
housed within
and the reigning
pharaoh.
Here, the winter
solstice sunrise
pours through the
First Pylon at
Karnak Temple,
which was aligned
for the rising sun
to shine through
its main axis.
© MARIE E. BRYAN

20 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

VITAL
ORGANS A RE-EVALUATION
OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
MUMMIFICATION

SOFIA AZIZ
© THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. ACC. NO. EA 22377, EA 22375, EA 22374, EA 22376

These four canopic jars were made for Djedbastiufankh, a The jars represent the Sons of Horus—four gods whose
priest of the goddess Neith, during Egypt’s Ptolemaic job it was to protect the vital organs contained within. But
Dynasty. They were found at Hawara in the Faiyum region. which god protected what organs? Read on.

Mummification was practiced in ancient Egypt for nearly 4,000 years as a means of preserving the
body for eternity. Canopic jars were a vital part of the process, holding the deceased’s embalmed
organs. But, as Sofia Aziz reveals, some of the received wisdom we thought we knew about these
jars turns out to be completely wrong.

T
he year 1837 marked the beginning of the The ancient Egyptian had been brought from Thebes
Victorian era, a dynamic period of social trans- in a clandestine night-time operation by Jersey resident
formations, medical advancements, and huge John Gosset. His journal entry, dated May 12th, 1835,
technological strides, but also marred by slums records the following:
and heart-wrenching living standards for the poorest. It
was also in 1837 that Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, a surgeon “Several Fellas, who may be called the
and antiquarian, was invited to unroll an elaborately resurrection men of Thebes, are in the
embalmed ancient Egyptian mummy acquired by the habit of excavating for antiquities,
tiny Island of Jersey in the English Channel. Pettigrew which they sell to travellers. . . . A gang,
determined these human remains to be of a male named composed of five, sent us word that they
Petmautiohmes, and he would provide Pettigrew a major had found a tomb untouched , and said, if
breakthrough in understanding fundamental aspects of we wished to see it, we might come at
ancient Egyptian mummification practices. night with one of their party. Accord-

22 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND LETTERS

Because of their portability, canopic jars made popular undertake a survey of Egypt’s sights and monuments. He
souvenirs for early explorers. In 1737, Frederik Norden, a brought back the above canopic jar inscribed for Imseti,
Danish naval captain, was commissioned by his king to which Norden described as “an antique Egyptian urn”.

genic mummies have been preserved through various dominal incision and treating the viscera with natron
procedures, including evisceration (removal of the in- and spices. Each organ was then wrapped in linen and
ternal organs), excerebration (removal of the brain), the stored in four canopic jars (or a chest with four compart-
use of embalming materials, aromatics, spices, filling ments) or reinserted in the abdominal cavity. A minia-
materials and sometimes artificial eyes and body ture figurine of one of the four Sons of Horus was some-
parts. Natural mummification, in contrast, is entirely times wrapped with the organs. In mummified remains
the product of environmental conditions, such as being where an incision is not visible, the viscera is thought to
buried in direct contact with the dry sands of the have been dissolved with a chemical enema.
Egyptian desert. Evisceration can be witnessed from as early as the
In Egyptian anthropogenic mummies, the procedure Old Kingdom. The tomb of Queen Hetepheres—likely
involved extracting the large internal organs (stomach, the mother of Khufu, builder of Giza’s Great Pyramid
lungs, liver and intestines) primarily through an ab- —contained packets of viscera treated with natron.

26 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 SIDEBAR
THE JUDGEMENT AT THE EDGE OF FOREVER
One of the most important spells in the Book of the Dead is the Weigh-
ing of the Heart, also known as the Judgement of Osiris. To prove
oneself worthy of eternity, the deceased was required to appear
before Osiris and prove that they had lived according to the
proper moral code (maat).
The Weighing of the Heart spell shown here was made
! B
for a woman named Tasheritkhonsu ! 1! t7 : who
lived during Egypt’s Ptolemaic Period. The first scene
(right) illustrating the spell shows Tasheritkhonsu being
led into the Hall of Judgement by the goddess Maat,
the embodiment of the ideal order of the cosmos.
Surrounded by 42 gods, Tasheritkhonsu recites the
Negative Confession, where she declares herself in-
nocent of one sin after another: “I have not robbed. . . I
have not been greedy. . . I have not killed anyone. . . I have
not told lies. . . I have not plotted against the king. . . .”

Next, Horus and Anubis weigh the heart of the deceased

against the feather of maat, with Thoth recording the result.
A light and pure heart sees the scales balance and grants
the deceased an audience with Osiris, with whom they
will be forever identified.

Standing before Osiris, perched atop a lotus, are the

7

four Sons of Horus, and behind them, Ammit, a fear-

83
.1

some demon composed of hippo, lion and crocodile.

AT

Should Tasheritkhonsu’s heart turn out to be heavy with

.C
N
RI

impure deeds, Ammit is poised to pounce. The demon would ,T

U
O
eat her heart and annihilate Tasheritkhonsu’s soul for eternity. I ZI
EG
O
SE
MU

[Link] 29
 Textual evidence from ancient Egypt in fact suggests
the Sons of Horus protected the entirety of the trunk of
the body. This would explain why the identification of
one specific organ per deity has been problematic.
Papyrus Chester Beatty VII records a collection of
spells invoking divine powers for the treatment of scor-
pion bites. The scorpion’s venom was regarded as an
entity passing through the various parts of the body,
which each needed addressing for the toxin to be purged.
Spell 21 states that the four Sons of Horus protected the
liver, lungs, heart, kidneys, spleen, intestines, and ribs,
implying that the four deities extended their care over
the entirety of the trunk of the body:
[ \! u!h :2h
t an 1 he 2 1h
“You (the venom) will not last in his liver, in his lungs,
!
G
1! 7 d h 1 && 2 h
in his heart, in his kidneys,
[ ! b
1 t y1 2 h 1 1\! b 2 h
in his spleen, in his intestines,

1l : w2 > t b
! b 2 h 1 1h ! b2 h
in his ribs or any of his internal organs;
P
Bg 1 1' F
# 11'
Imseti, Hapy,
! 5
_!: > . p h ' Y~+ 6 b:'h
Duamutef, Qebehsenuef,
b M !
333' >1: '
5

! b2
the gods in the torso, are against you.”
(Papyrus Chester Beatty VII, British Museum (EA 10687),
19th Dynasty, ca. 1250 b.c.)

Additionally, the Saqqara Saite Tomb Project, exca-

vating near Djoser’s Step Pyramid, reported in 2020
the discovery of the burial of a 26th-Dynasty woman

This illustration by Thomas Pettigrew shows a Graeco-

Egyptian mummy, unrolled on 6 April 1833. The man
still retains the short beard he sported in life.
When Pettigrew unrolled the Jersey Mummy some five
years later, he discovered a scarab upon its chest, which
carried on its underside a hieroglyphic inscription. It is
from here that Pettigrew identified the name of the man,
which he interpreted as Pet-maut-ioh-mes. The first line
of the scarab text read as follows:

t R! .1 \ ]
<H ` < a e ]c
“For the Osiris Pedimut-Ahmose, True of Voice.”

Pettigrew’s effort wasn’t bad, particularly consider-

ing that the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic system had
been first “cracked” by Jean-François Champollion just
15 years earlier.
COURTESY OF THE PEGGY JOY EGYPTOLOGY LIBRARY

30 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 KV
62
THE
EVIDENCE
FOR HIDDEN
CHAMBERS

MATTHEW J. McGOVERN

I
n 2015, Egyptologist Dr. Nicholas Reeves
proposed two revolutionary theories about the
tomb of Tutankhamun in Luxor’s Valley of the
Kings. The first is that KV 62 was not Tutankha-
mun’s tomb at all, but the sepulchre of Nefertiti
interred as her suspected alter ego, King Smenkh-
kare. Under this theory, Nefertiti adopted the new
pharaonic identity upon becoming sole ruler after
the death of her husband, Akhenaten. Reeves posits
that Nefertiti’s untouched burial still lies in a
remote, undiscovered section of the tomb, beyond
the North Wall of Tutankhamun’s Burial Chamber.
As the theory goes, Tutankhamun was hur- Dr.
riedly buried, not in his own tomb, but in the Reeves support-
repurposed outer chambers of Nefertiti’s after he ed his first theory, in part, by
died unexpectedly at a young age. Thus, the known analyzing the layout of the decoration on the North
footprint of KV 62 represents a tomb within a larger Wall—arguing that this layout offers clear evidence
undiscovered tomb complex. that the right half of this wall is an artificial parti-
Nicholas Reeves’ second contention is that the tion concealing a northward corridor leading to
section of the tomb dedicated to Tutankhamun Nefertiti. Inspired by this analysis of the North
potentially contains four satellite chambers, two of Wall decoration, this author undertook an inde-
which remain concealed in the Burial Chamber, pendent analysis of the decorations on all four walls
behind the West Wall and South Wall, respec- of the Burial Chamber and found evidence which
tively (see page 37). clearly supports both of Reeves’ theories.

[Link] 35
 THE TOMB OF NEFERTITI
Nicholas Reeves believes that Tutankhamun was buried in the
outer section of a tomb that was already in use for Nefertiti, the
principal wife of King Akhenaten. Following his death, she ruled
independently, as the full pharaoh Smenkhkare. It was at this time
that the section of corridor before the false wall leading to her
burial apartments was expanded west to become a “Well
Chamber”. This area was later redecorated and
repurposed as Tutankhamun’s Burial Chamber.
Storerooms were
constructed surrounding
Tutankhamun’s burial. The
doorway to the Treasury was
left open, while there is evidence
of a sealed doorway in the Burial
Chamber’s West Wall, highlighted in yellow
(page 45) and South Wall, highlighted
in purple (page 44).

The
proposed
corridor continuation
behind the North Wall of
Tutankhamun’s Burial Chamber.

© PETER GREMSE, [Link]

Tutankhamun the subject when the outer chambers open. Indeed, the second and third scenes fit neatly
of the tomb were adapted for his use. Reeves pro- to the left of Reeves’ proposed service entrance.
poses that one of the more dramatic alterations to The first scene at far right—the “opening of the
the original Nefertiti-era decoration was the addi- mouth ceremony”—would have been completed
tion of the middle figure in the third act. This new last, once the service entrance was closed.
figure is identified by its text as Tutankhamun In support of this hypothesis, Reeves notes that
and is shown situated between a figure originally the eye levels of all four figures to the left of the
representing Nefertiti (now reidentified as Tutankh- service entrance (minus the Tutankhamun-era
amun’s ka) and Osiris. Thus, the Nefertiti-era addition of the middle figure in the third scene)
decoration included only six figures in total, while are all the same, but differ from the eye levels of
the current Tutankhamun-era incarnation of this the two figures in the first scene overlaying the
scene includes seven. proposed closed service entrance. Reeves reasons
Reeves argues that, for practical reasons, the that Nefertiti’s artists must have found themselves
original, Nefertiti-era decoration was executed on short of room once the service entrance was closed
the wall in reverse order from left to right and in and so were forced to compress the “scene one”
two stages. In the first stage, the artists executed figures to fit them within the remaining wall space.
“scene three” (Osiris greeting Nefertiti) on the left Inspired by this analysis, I undertook a pains-
side of the wall and “scene two” (Nut greeting Nefer- taking reexamination of the North Wall decor-
titi) in the middle of this wall. Reeves argues that ation. I was surprised to find compelling evidence
stage one was executed after the partition wall was in support of Reeves’ hypothesis, but with one
constructed but while its service entrance still lay reservation: rather than a decoration completed

[Link] 37
 The North Wall of Tutankhamun’s Burial Chamber as Smenkhkare), is significantly below those of the
it was first decorated for Smenkhkare (Nefertiti as figures to the left. He reasons this is because these
sole ruler). Nicholas Reeves observes that the eye two figures were painted after the construction of the
level of the first two figures (Tutankhamun officiating partition wall, forcing the artists to compress the
as high priest to his predecessor, the mummified figures into the available space.

MONET BURZACOTT AFTER PETER GREMSE, [Link]

The North Wall of Tutankhamun’s Burial Chamber of Tutankhamun, with the Scene 3 Smenkhkare
as it appears today—repurposed with Tutankhamun transformed into an image of the royal ka. A new
as the principal figure. The two female images of figure of Tutankhamun has been squeezed into the
Smenkhkare have been changed into male figures limited space between his ka and Osiris.

in two stages—the first while the service entrance This notion of an initial stage before any part
lay open and the second after it was closed—the of the partition wall was constructed is evidenced
evidence demonstrates that the decoration was by two irregularities in the execution of one spe-
completed in three stages: cific figure on the North Wall. The proposed seam
between the bedrock and the partition runs verti-
1. Before the partition wall was constructed and cally between the figures of Nut and Tutankhamun
while the Northern Corridor was open in its in the North Wall’s middle scene (opposite page).
entirety; More specifically, the proposed seam runs direct-
2. As Reeves asserts, after the supposed corridor ly through Nut at two points: through her forward-
partition was erected to leave an open service most left wrist at or around her bangle, and through
entrance; her forwardmost left foot.
3. After this service entrance was closed. A close examination of Nut’s left foot reveals
that it was elongated and widened in antiquity.
In other words, this author advocates for an Indeed, the original toenail of a shorter foot is still
additional stage in the decoration of the Burial discernible within the elongated version. Assuming
Chamber’s North Wall. that Nut’s original shorter foot was painted while

38 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 © J. PAUL GETTY TRUST

[Link] 39
 © J. PAUL GETTY TRUST

The vertical division between the North Wall’s hidden wall had been constructed and plastered, this
entrance and bedrock forced the artists to compress compressed foot was able to be corrected. Nut’s new
the goddess Nut’s leading foot. The original toenail of foot, with a more appropriate proportion, now
this short foot is arrowed, above. Once the partition extended into the decoration of the new partition.

the Northern Corridor lay fully open, then this outlined in red (all of the principle figures in Burial
foot had extended to the existing edge of the Chamber decorations are outlined in red or black).
bedrock. It appears that Nefertiti’s artists ran short Just above Nut’s bangle on her left wrist, the red
on room and so were forced to compress the outline of her arm splits (see opposite page). This
goddess’ left foot into the remaining space. Once split demonstrates that Nut’s lower arm and wrist
the partition was constructed, this unsatisfactory were originally slimmer around the point of Reeve’s
contraction was corrected by extending the foot proposed seam but were later widened.
onto the new partition wall. The decision to widen Nut’s wrist suggests that
Likewise, there is evidence that the figure of once the partition was erected, the artists found
Nut was altered at the second point of intersection that adding her left hand to the existing wrist would
with Reeves’ proposed seam: her forward-most, have made the hand too small. The widening of
lower left arm and wrist. If the figure was painted the goddess’ wrist just over Reeves’ proposed seam
before the putative partition wall was constructed, is evidence that the artists made a quick adjustment
Nut’s arm would have been cut off around the wrist; to avoid this. The fact that both of these alterations
her left hand could not have been painted until occur along the very edge of Reeves’ proposed turn
after a partition was constructed. There is clear into the Northern Corridor is highly significant
evidence for this order of execution. Nut’s body is and is surely more than mere coincidence.

40 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

© THE WALTERS ART MUSEUM, BALTIMORE. ACC. NO. W.738

Sobek was associated with the crocodile which was feared connection to the Nile floods that made the Egyptian land
for its voracious appetite. He was called upon for protec- productive. This image of Sobek is from the Book of the
tion from evil, but also venerated for his fertility and Faiyum, composed during Egypt's Graeco-Roman Period.

In this article, we will consider the origins, beliefs, a single characteristic, but included all of the benefits he
and practices surrounding Sobek in order to understand provided to those who worshipped him.
why he was so important to ancient Egyptian religion. If we were forced to define Sobek’s personality in
Along the way, we will also explore questions of what terms of a single characteristic, it would be appetite. Just
makes a god powerful, and how the ancient Egyptians like real-life crocodiles, Sobek would eat nearly anything
reconciled the terrifying dangers of the natural world he could get ahold of. In the story of the murder of Osiris,
with their belief in the supremacy of the gods. the trickster god Seth cut up his brother’s body and scat-
tered the pieces throughout Egypt. Always hungry for
BELIEFS anything edible that might float by, Sobek ate a piece of
You’ve probably seen depictions of Sobek before. If Osiris’ body. He was punished for the crime by having
you’ve ever seen an Egypt- his tongue cut out. The
ian god with the body of
m ? t story serves as a mythical
a man and the head of a \ B
t 1 e 1 eq G !] explanation for the fact
crocodile, that was Sobek. “Unas appears as Sobek, son of Neith. . . . that crocodiles didn’t ap-
He was the quintessential pear to have tongues to
crocodile god of ancient B
t 1 e # 1 > l ! K m ancient observers. (Tech-
Egypt. Unas is lord of semen, nically, crocodiles do have
You might be tempted tongues, which are held to
to ask what Sobek was the 1 z z z 1\ e
!!! / $ t
l the bottoms of the mouths
god of. It’s only natural to who takes women from their husbands, by a membrane and don’t
wonder, since it’s common move freely.) The story
for Egyptian gods to be M ! ! LM B 1 e B Jd
h ! h characterises Sobek as
b M
t
described in this way. For b unable to control his vor-
to the place Unas likes according to his heart’s desire.”
instance, Geb is the god of actious hunger. Not even
(Pyramid Texts, Utterance 317.
the earth, Nut the goddess Reign of King Unas, 5th Dynasty, ca. 2360 b.c.) the gods were safe within
of the sky, etc. However, range of his jaws.
not all Egyptian deities Meanwhile, Sobek’s
can be defined in terms of a single real-world domain. sexual appetites were the stuff of legend. In various
Sobek is one such example. In the places where he was funerary texts, that is, Egyptian texts included with
worshipped, he was supreme: the giver of life and abun- burials as guides to the afterlife, women and goddesses
dance, the bringer of the annual Nile flood, a source of literally throw themselves at Sobek. He was so virile that
protection from danger. His personality was not tied to they simply couldn’t resist him. One of his epithets is,

54 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

KENNETH GARRETT / [Link]

[Link] 57
 The riverside temple at Kom Ombo, around 55
km north of Aswan, was one of the main cult
centres of the crocodile god Sobek. The god is
shown here wearing his solar crown.

© MIKE SHEPHERD IMAGES

Food and sex are just as essential to humanity as they and Sobek’s native habitats might help to explain their
are to crocodiles, but the pursuit of these things can lead familial connection.
to danger. Understanding and addressing those dangers The Pyramid Texts connect Sobek with the city of
in the form of a god was a way of coping with them. Shedyet for the first—but certainly not the last—time.
Shedyet (later known to the Greeks as Crocodilopolis
BEHAVIOURS or “crocodile city”) was the
The first preserved mention urban heart of the Faiyum
of Sobek comes from the t 1 e # 1 eq ? $i- ] !
B
region, and the centre of
Pyramid Texts, collections “Unas is Sobek, green of plumage, worship for Sobek from
of magic spells and reli- M e- : B m G - a time before written
gious hymns carved on the b ! evidence existed. In later
inside of some Old with alert face and raised forehead, times, worship of Sobek
Kingdom pyramids. There, ! 1 eqn q c B would spread to other parts
Sobek is identified as the
\q v M oB ! of Egypt, especially the
son of Neith, a goddess of the splashing one who came from the thigh and tail Delta and Kom Ombo in
hunting from the Delta D ! Upper Egypt, but his story
region. Since Sobek was M 1 >! 1! B begins in the Faiyum.
known as a voracious pred- of the great one who is in the sunlight.” During Egypt’s Middle
ator, it makes sense that (Pyramid Texts, Utterance 317. Kingdom, specifically the
his mother would also be Reign of King Unas, 5th Dynasty, ca. 2360 b.c.) 12th Dynasty, the capital
skilled in hunting. of Egypt was located in
Like the Faiyum area, The expression “green of plumage” likely connects the Itj-Tawy / a a, a city near
crocodile’s natural greenish hide with the Nile’s fertile
the Delta was a land of marshlands. The “great one” probably refers to the
the entrance to the Faiyum.
marshes and greenery. warrior goddess Neith, a fitting mother for Sobek who The pharaohs of this per-
The similarity of Neith was notorious for his rage. iod began the first of many

58 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 This granite sphinx of the 12th Dynasty
ruler Amenemhat III was discovered at
Tanis in 1863, hauled there by the last of
several pharaohs to have usurped it.
Statuary portraits of Amenemhat often
create a strikingly realistic impression,
characterised by prominent cheekbones,
furrowed cheeks and a strong jawline.
Amenemhat seems to have wanted to
project an image of a serious, mature
man—capable and strong.
Amenemhat III paid particular
attention to the development of the
Faiyum area where he dedicated a
temple to Sobek. Such was his
devotion to the crocodile god that
Amenemhat named his daughter
Sobekneferu eee b ("the beauty
of Sobek"). She went on to become
the dynasty's last pharaoh.

© JEFFREY ROSS BURZACOTT

state-run projects to increase the agricultural product- diet that few humans could afford at the time! When the
ivity of the Faiyum region. These projects were large crocodile died, it was given a king’s funeral. The croco-
even by modern standards. They involved draining dile itself was mummified and buried in a tomb.
marshy areas to expand cropland and building up the Amenemhat also built a pyramid near the city of
urban infrastructure of Shedyet at a place now
the entire area. ] 7 ! 1 .1G : ? #K e h called Hawara. The mor-
As part of this large- t t t !
b M tuary cult of the king was
scale land reclamation “King Amenemhat has given this your beautiful face, tightly connected to the
project, the 12th Dynasty f > ? 11 h .! ? t t temple at Shedyet and the
C

pharaoh Amenemhat III UU ! veneration of Sobek. This

built temples throughout with which you look at your mother, Neith. . . . explosion of religious ar-
the Faiyum that focused chitecture shows how
on the worship of local %: d f!
` prominent Sobek was in
deities. The largest and Horus who resides in Shedyet (in the Faiyum), the Faiyum at this time. In
grandest was in the city /? t t ! order to build goodwill
of Shedyet at the centre !# 7 1. t 1G ! with the people, Middle
of the Faiyum. There, May you be merciful to King Amenemhat, Kingdom pharaohs un-
Amenemhat built and
e h : ? 11 h 1 # Vt apologetically made ev-
expanded on earlier sites M b b erything about Sobek.
to create a grand temple through whom your face is happy on this day.” The Pharaohs also
to the crocodile god, (Hymn to Sobek, 13th Dynasty, ca. 1770 b.c. strengthened their own
complete with a pool at British Museum, EA 10759,2.) ties to Sobek by empha-
its centre for the children sising his connection to
of Sobek. The above text describes King Amenemhat III having Horus, the god of king-
given Sobek a face, no doubt via the creation of a divine
Ancient sources de- ship. In texts from the
statue. This hymn was subsequently written in order to
scribe a massive crocodile give praise to the god and plea for mercy on his behalf. Middle Kingdom onward,
living in the temple, Sobek is identified as
adorned with crowns and necklaces—a living god. “Horus in the Faiyum” (see boxed text). The idea seems
This pampered crocodile was probably raised from the to be that Horus, upon entering the Faiyum, took on the
egg to trust humans and not harm them. Instead, it form of Sobek, as though they were a single god in
dined on meat, bread, and beer daily. The sort of rich different guises. By means of this clever theological

[Link] 59
National Gallery of Victoria

P
haraoh, the exhibition, now showing at the Na- Through more than 500 works, including monumental
tional Gallery of Victoria, Australia, brings more sculpture, tomb architecture, temple statuary, exquisite
than 3,000 years of ancient Egyptian history to jewellery, papyri, coffins and an incredibly rich array of
life through some of the finest objects from the funerary objects, the exhibition unpacks the phenom-
British Museum’s vast holdings. enon of pharaoh, those all-powerful kings claiming a
The theme of the exhibition is to focus on the most divine origin. Pharaoh looks past the Hollywood image
iconic figure in ancient Egypt: that of the pharaoh. to reveal the carefully designed personas of the Egyptian

LABEL FOR A PAIR OF SANDALS SHOWING KING DEN SMITING AN ENEMY.

EGYPT, ABYDOS. 1st DYNASTY, REIGN OF KING DEN, ABOUT 2985 b.c. HIPPOPOTAMUS IVORY.
© THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. ACC. NO. EA 55586.

62 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

 HEAD OF A COLOSSAL STATUE, PROBABLY PHARAOH THUTMOSE III.
EGYPT, THEBES, KARNAK. 18th DYNASTY, REIGN OF THUTMOSE II, ABOUT 1465 b.c. GREEN SILTSTONE.
© THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. ACC. NO. EA 986.

(ABOVE) (OPPOSITE)
Sculptures of Thutmose III can be hard to distinguish from One of the pharaoh’s key roles was to maintain the well-
those of his stepmother, Hatshepsut, with whom he shared being of the gods, who in return, offered their divine blessing.
power for more than two decades. Both pharaohs feature The deities were embodied in divine statues housed in
large, almond-shaped eyes, elegantly arching brows, a slim temples, and just like living beings, these sculptures required
nose, and narrow lips that subtly curve into a smile. In fact, daily care. As high priest, it was the king’s responsibility to
scholars deliberated who this head belonged to for more a feed, clothe and perform rituals for them. A pharaoh
century. The body and base are still missing. couldn’t be everywhere, of course, and so priests across the
Hatshepsut first served as regent for her stepson until he country performed these rituals on his behalf.
came of age. Rather than step aside at his coronation This statue portrays King Ramesses II in his role as High
however, Hatshepsut became part of an unorthodox but Priest. Ramesses kneels before an offering table, supported
successful coregency. After her death, Thutmose III set about by a hes-vase—a vessel used for purification and libations in
removing all traces of the female pharaoh. religious rituals.

64 NILE #37 | JUNE 2024

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