GE 10 - ETHICS WITH PEACE EDUCATION

WHAT IS ETHICS?
● the good thing we should pursue and the bad thing we should avoid
● the right way in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting
● what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior
"ETHOS" (greek)
● CHARACTER MORAL NATURE
"MOS” | "MORES" (latin)
● NORMS CUSTOM
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
● A branch of Philosophy that addresses QUESTIONS about morality concepts of good and bad,
right and wrong, justice, and virtues.
THE ART OF CORRECT LIVING
● It provides and puts order and harmony in our lives.
● HOW SHOULD WE LIVE?
● HOW CAN ONE LIVE A HAPPY/GOOD LIFE?
CONSISTENT and WELL- FOUNDED REASONS
● It refers to WELL-FOUNDED STANDARDS of right and wrong that prescribe what humans
OUGHT TO DO, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society.. fairness, or specific
virtues.
CONSTANT REFLECTION
● It also refers to the STUDY and DEVELOPMENT of one's ethical standards.
● It is necessary to CONSTANTLY EXAMINE and STUDY one's standards to ensure that they are
reasonable and well-founded.
ETHICS
● GOOD & BAD based on what is imposed by OUTSIDE GROUP [CODE OF CONDUCT]
MORALITY
● OWN PERSONAL sense of GOOD & BAD [PERSONAL BELIEFS]
LAW
● ENFORCEABLE STANDARD OF BEHAVIOR
● FORMAL RULES
● JUST | UNJUST
MORALITY
● INFORMAL RULES
● STRONG MORAL CODE: HOW SHOULD I LIVE?
● USUALLY THE PROCESS OF MORAL FORMATION IS UNCONSCIOUS [unconscious habits]
PROCESS OF REFLECTION [CONSCIOUS REFLECTION]
● UNTHINKING HABITS
● SOCIAL CONVENTION
[SOCRATES]
● "An UNEXAMINED LIFE is NOT WORTH LIVING.”
INTELLECT/RATIONAL
● able to distinguish what is GOOD and BAD
SOCIAL/RELATIONAL
● feel oblige to DO GOOD and AVOID BAD
FREE/FREEDOM
● accountable with our ACTIONS
 1. MAN has MORAL SENSE
2. MAN MORAL AGENT

FREE
● ability to choose consciously, autonomously, and deliberately
RELATIONAL
● ability to relate and connect with others
RATIONAL
● ability to think, reflect, reason out, and distinguish what is right and wrong
Why Study Ethics?
● It helps you identify different kinds of moral values, and distinguish them from other kinds of
values
● It helps you see what moral values are at stake in a variety of situations
● It helps you decide what to do when faced with difficult moral choices

TYPES of ETHICS?

NORMATIVE ETHICS
● Determining the MORAL COURSE of the human actions. STANDARDS of RIGHTNESS and
WRONGNESS
● "How should people act?”
DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS
● VALUES PEOPLE ABIDE and PEOPLE'S BELIEF about right and wrong.
● "What do people think is right?”
APPLIED ETHICS
● How moral outcomes can be ACHIEVED in specific situations.
● "How do we take moral knowledge and put it into practice?”
METAETHICS
● ANALYZES the NATURE of ethics and morality, the MEANING of moral language and moral
facts, and whether there can be KNOWLEDGE of moral truths.
● "What actually is ETHICS?”
HUMAN ACTS
● Actions PERFORMED by man: [actions that are PROPER to human]
● KNOWINGLY and FREELY, DELIBERATE and INTENTIONAL, VOLUNTARY
ACTS OF MAN
● Acts that we do WITHOUT free will and intellect; some are done by INSTINCT.
● INSTINCTIVE and INVOLUNTARY

ETHICAL THEORIES

MORAL STANDARDS
● actions we believed to be morally right or wrong
● promotes "good" - welfare and well-being of humans and whole of creation.
● Moral standards are rules that tell us which actions are morally good and which ones are bad
● They deal with more serious cases; are sound, authoritative, significant and impartial; and have
strong emotional consequences compared to non-moral rules

MORAL vs NON-MORAL
MORAL STANDARDS
● [rules people have about the KINDS OF ACTIONS they believe are morally right and wrong, as
well as the VALUES they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally
bad.]
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
● [rules that are UNRELATED to moral or ethical considerations.]
MORAL
● acting within your conscience MORAL [has a sense of right and wrong and live up to the moral
standards]
IMMORAL
● acting against one's conscience [has a sense of right and wrong but fails to live up to moral
standards]
AMORAL
● does not have a conscience to begin with or lacks a conscience due to cognitive disorder
UNMORAL
● right and wrong are not applicable
MORAL DILEMMA
● two (or more) actions would be correct in the appropriate sense of "OUGHT", that is ought to be
done, and both of which we cannot do.
● Moral dilemmas are situations in which a person is forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which solves the situation in a morally acceptable way

They are different from ordinary moral problems because of a moral dilemma:
1. The moral agent is obliged to choose which course of action is best.
2. There must be at least two conflicting options to choose from; and
3. No matter which course of action is taken, some moral principle is always compromised

ETHICAL APPROACH
"ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING MODELS
● to help best decide on many different/diverse options.”
● NONE of them is DEFINITIVE or FINAL.
● ALL have STRENGTHS and CHALLENGES [advantages and disadvantages]

ETHICS
● We are always concern with what is RIGHT and WRONG.

1. We want a WELL-LIVED LIFE. [A LIFE WORTH LIVING]

2. "A well-lived life is a HAPPY life.”
3. HAPPINESS and LIVING WELL are related to the GOOD and those that we VALUE in life.
GOOD
● GOAL and FULFILLMENT of BEING MΑΝ. [object of the will]
● [health & knowledge] REAL and OBJECTIVE GOOD
● APPARENT GOOD [seemingly good but really not]
VALUE
● USEFUL, SIGNIFICANT, DESIRABLE [assessment of worth]
● [independent from recognition or appreciation of man] OBJECTIVE VALUE
● SUBJECTIVE VALUE [dependent from recognition or appreciation of man.
HIERARCHY of VALUE
● Some values have higher worth than the others. [PRIORITY]
● Objective ranking of values - not dependent on the preference of individuals.
● Only MAN can formulate and express VALUES. [inseparable from man's life]
● VALUES in MORAL CONDUCT [MORAL VALUES]

KINDS OF VALUATION

AESTHETICS
● "aisthesis" [sense or feeling]
● judgments of personal approval or disapproval [personal preference]
ETIQUETTE
● concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which might be considered not quite grave
enough to belong to a discussion on ethics.
TECHNIQUE/ TECHNICAL
● "techne" [craft or art]
● proper way of doing things [may not necessarily be ethical]
MORAL/ETHICAL
● certain gravity and concern the human well-being or human life itself
MORAL ISSUE
● particular issue that are often the source of considerable and inconclusive debate
MORAL DECISION
● when one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform
MORAL JUDGMENT
● when a person (observer) makes an assessment of the actions or behavior of someone
MORAL DILEMMA
● complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing
between the lesser of two evils
MORAL REASONING
● reasons we give to decide or to judge in a certain way what is right or wrong
MORAL PRINCIPLES
● rationally established grounds by which one justifies and maintains one's moral decisions and
judgments
MORAL THEORY
● a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral principles

AUTHORITIES MORALITY

Law
● When you follow the LAW, are you an ETHICAL/MORAL PERSON?
● GUIDE to ETHICAL BEHAVIORS [tells us WHAT TO DO and WHAT NOT TO DO]
● COMPLIANCE - compel us to OBEY an OBJECTIVE STANDARD [OBLIGATORY and
APPLICABLE TO ALL]
● "Just follow whatever the law says.”
● GUIDE to ETHICAL BEHAVIORS [tells us WHAT TO DO and WHAT NOT TO DO]
● "We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and
humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations,
promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and
 our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy, under the rule of law and a regime of
truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.”
● GUIDE to ETHICAL BEHAVIORS [tells us WHAT TO DO and WHAT NOT TO DO]
● **PROHIBITIVE NATURE OF LAW** [SHOULD NOT DO | WHAT TO AVOID] NEGATIVE
PERSPECTIVE
Religion
● When you follow the teachings of your FAITH, are you an ETHICAL/MORAL PERSON?
● SOCIAL INSTITUTION that involves a SYSTEM OF BELIEFS AND PRACTICES that recognize
the SACRED.
● SACRED - things set apart by society as EXTRAORDINARY, INSPIRING AWE, and
DESERVING OF REVERENCE [SACRED vs PROFANE]
● SOCIAL INSTITUTION that involves a SYSTEM OF BELIEFS AND PRACTICES that recognize
the SACRED.
● SACRED - things set apart by society as EXTRAORDINARY, INSPIRING AWE, and
DESERVING OF REVERENCE [SACRED vs PROFANE]
● SYSTEM of FAITH and WORSHIP [oblige to obey his/her God]
● NOT SIMPLY PROHIBITIVE, BUT ALSO PROVIDES IDEALS TO PURSUE. [WAY OF LIFE]
● SYSTEM of FAITH and WORSHIP [oblige to obey his/her God]
● [CREED+CODE+CULT] belief system + way of life + worship and practices
● [MULTIPLICITY OF RELIGIONS] different religions, different beliefs
Culture
● When you follow your CULTURE and TRADITION, are you an ETHICAL/MORAL PERSON?
● PATTERNS of LEARNED and SHARED BEHAVIORS and BELIEFS of a PARTICULAR SOCIAL,
ETHNIC, or AGE GROUPS.
● [MAINSTREAM CULTURE] [SUBCULTURE] [COUNTERCULTURE]
PERSONAL ETHICS
● "morality”
● the ethics that a person identifies with in respect to people and situations that they deal with in
everyday life.
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
● the ethics that a person must adhere to in respect of their interactions and business dealings in
their professional life.
GLOBAL ETHICS
● a set of common moral values and ethical standards which are shared by the different faiths and
cultures on Earth
● "most controversial and least understood" Global Justice | Environmental Stewardship |
Reverence

how does CULTURE

(affect and shape MORAL BEHAVIOR?)

What is CULTURE?
● A complex whole which includes KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, ARTS, MORALS, LAW, CUSTOMS,
● and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
● The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.

FUNCTION OF CULTURE
● Culture provides IDENTITY to the people in society.
● Culture mirrors the LAWS of the land.
 ● Culture UNIFIES people in ways that only those who belong in that society understands.
● Culture influences our concept of MORALITY.

MORAL ACTIONS are embedded in the social structures provided by the traditions of old. There is no
way that we will decide without invoking our CULTURAL MORAL BIASES.

ETHNOCENTRISM
● The practice of taking one's own people, society, and culture to be the VANTAGE POINT from
which all else is viewed and judged. (Bruce & Yearley, 2006)
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
● Moral Beliefs and Practices VARY WITH and DEPEND ON the human needs and social condition
of particular cultures. (Holmes, 2007)
● Viewing PEOPLE'S BEHAVIOR from the PERSPECTIVE of their CULTURE.

UNDERSTANDING OVER JUDGMENT

NO UNIVERSAL ("OUGHTS”)

NO CULTURE can be the basis of all that is GOOD and TRUE.

ETHICAL JUDGMENTS are RELATIVE to CULTURAL CONTEXTS

APPRECIATION and CELEBRATION CULTURAL DIVERSITY

● defer judgment and extend understanding
● generous and open-minded way of respecting others

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
STRENGTH
● Right and Wrong - Judged Based on Cultural Contexts
● Answer to Cultural Annihilation
● Promotes MULTICULTURALISM
CHALLENGES
● Universal Standards Do Not Exist If universal standards DO NOT EXIST, so thus morality
● Gives birth to ETHICAL RELATIVISM - away from Objective Moral Standards
● MORAL PROGRESS is IMPOSSIBLE
ETHICAL RELATIVISM
● There are no UNIVERSAL MORAL STANDARDS -- standards that can be universally applied to
all peoples at all times.
● If ethical relativism is correct, there can be NO COMMON FRAMEWORK for resolving moral
disputes or for reaching AGREEMENT on ethical matters among members of different societies.
RELATIVISM
● Relativism makes truth CHEAP and EASY and is fundamentally ESCAPIST.
● It is an EASY WAY OUT from the fundamental FACT that we LIVE IN A WORLD WITH OTHER
HUMAN BEINGS.

1. "It makes sense to think that our own society has made some moral progress, while admitting that
it is still imperfect and in need of reform" [James Rachels]
 2. "What relativism helps us to see, however, is that all values have some reasonable basis, and it is
our TASK to find the REASONABLE BASIS for moral statements and establish the
REASONABLE GROUNDS for saying, for example, that killing is wrong." [James Rachels]
3. "We must be HUMBLE about our own culture which may contain practices which we should seek
to reform, where progress is still required." [James Rachels]
4. What is important is that one does not wander into ethical situations BLINDLY.
5. CHALLENGE ourselves to continuously work towards a fuller maturity, in ethical decision making.

ETHICS X FILIPINO CULTURE

FILIPINO CHARACTER (STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER)

STRENGTHS
PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO
● KAPUWA-TAO [sense of justice and fairness]
● SENSITIVITY [concern for others]
● UTANG NA LOOB [returning the favor]
FAMILY ORIENTATION
● DEEP LOVE FOR THE FAMILY [pagmamahal sa pamilya]
● CLOSE FAMILY TIES [more than the extended family]
CONCERN FOR FAMILY
● HONOR AND RESPECT [pagmamano | "po" at "opo"]
● BAYANIHAN SYSTEM
JOY AND HUMOR
● CHEERFUL AND FUN APPROACH TO LIFE ["ngiti/tawa lang kahit may problema"]
● POSITIVE SPIRIT [walang binigay ang Diyos na hindi natin kaya] ["minsan nasa ibaba, minsan
nasa itaas"]

FLEXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY, CREATIVITY

● ABILITY TO ADAPT [magagawa natin ng paraan]
● ABILITY TO EMBRACE CHANGE
HARDWORKING AND INDUSTRIOUS
● WORK HARD | MASIPAG ["maiahon ang pamilya sa hirap"]
● MATIISIN [para sa pamilya] [willingness to take risks | work abroad] [working two/three jobs]
FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY
● DEEP FAITH IN GOD ["may awa ang Diyos"]
● TRUST IN GOD [optimism amidst tragedy and bad fortune] ["manalig tayo sa Maykapal"]
ABILITY TO SURVIVE
● ENDURANCE DESPITE DIFFICULTIES ["kaya mo yan!"] [difficulties are part of life]
[RESILIENCE | FILIPINO SPIRIT]

WEAKNESSES

EXTREME PERSONALISM
● TAKING THINGS PERSONALLY ["walang personalan?"] ["pinag-iinitan" | "favoritism"]
EXTREME FAMILY-CENTERNESS
● FAMILY | FRIENDS INTEREST FIRST [PADRINO SYSTEM] [factionalism, patronage, political
dynasties]
● PROTECTION OF ERRING FAMILY/FRIENDS
LACK OF DISCIPLINE
● MANYANA HABIT [mamaya na]
● FILIPINO TIME [laging late]
● PROCRASTINATION [cramming and poor time management]
PASSIVITY AND LACK OF INITIATIVE
● "KAYA NA NILA YAN" MENTALITY [bahala na ang Diyos | si Batman]
● OVER-RELIANCE ON OTHERS [bahala na ang goberyo samin]
COLONIAL MENTALITY
● LACK OF PATRIOTISM [gawang pinoy = cheap]
● PREFERENCE TOWARDS THINGS FOREIGN [basta imported the "best"]
KANYA-KANYA SYNDROME
● SELFISH, SELF-SERVING ATTITUDE [envy or competitiveness]
● CRAB-MENTALITY [STATUS and PRESTIGE | ONE'S GAIN over ANOTHER'S LOSS]
● GOSSIP-TSISMIS [the rise of "marites"]
LACK OF SELF-ANALYSIS AND SELF-REFLECTION
● NOT TAKING SERIOUS PROBLEM SERIOUSLY [""wag mong seryosohin ang problema"]
BAHALA NA MENTALITY

LOOB & KAPUWA

LOOB
● "RELATIONAL WILL”
KAPUWA
● "SHARED SELF"
● "SHARED IDENTITY"
● "SELF-IN-THE-OTHER"
● "TOGETHER WITH THE PERSON.”

Filipino Ethics seeks to PRESERVE and STRENGTHEN HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS

LOOB AT KAPUWA
● "PAGKAKAISA is also the highest level of interpersonal interaction possible. It can be said that
being one with another is a full realization of pakikipagkapwa." [ENRIQUEZ]

VIRTUE ETHICS: Confucian

PROPONENT OF THE THEORY

● The proponent of Confucian Virtue Ethics is Confucius, who lived around 551-479 BCE. He was
China's most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas have profoundly
influenced the civilizations of China and other East Asian countries. Confucius emphasized the
importance of personal virtues and moral character in ethical behavior, arguing that a good
society is built an individuals cultivating their moral integrity. Confucius based his system of ethics
on Five Constant virtues: Ren (Benovelence). Yi (Righteousness), Li (Propriety), Zhi
(Knowledge), and Xin (Integrity).

IMPORTANT DETAILS OR TRUTHS/BIG IDEAS ABOUT THE CONFUCIANISM

● Confucius emphasized the significance of moral principles, good behavior, and societal peace.
He believed in the concept of "Ren", which means "benevolence" or "humaneness".
 ● Confucius' teachings were compiled into a book called the Analects.
● Golden rule of Confucianism- "Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto
you".
Confucianism's Basic Text:
Book of Changes
Book of History
Book of Poetry
Classic Rites
Spring and Autumn Annals

FOUR RELATIONSHIP:
Father and Son
Husband and Wife
Ruler and Subject
Friend and Friend

FIVE CLASSICAL VIRTUES. OR WUCHANG: Ren or Benevolence

Yi ar Righteousness
Li or Propriety
Zhi ar Wisdom
Xin or Fidelity

The 5 Virtue of Confucianism

LI OR PROPRIETY
● Li, Confucian concept often rendered as "ritual." "proper conduct," or "propriety." Originally II
denoted court rites performed to sustain social and cosmic order. Generally doing things that are
appropriate in a given situation. It originally refers to proper ways of performing religious rites and
to proper behavior in court ceremonies. In Its general meaning, however, it includes proper ways
of speaking, behaving, dressing, and others, in given social situations.

Yi
● Yi is often linked with the words 'appropriate', 'suitable' or 'correct'. Mencius is remembered for
the words: 'Ren is the heart, yi is the path.' Yi, in other words, is right action, or simply
righteousness. Vi translated as 'righteousness' means right or correct action coming out of the
benevolent heart. The righteous person does not premeditate how good or righteous s/he is; s/he
speaks the right word or acts in the right manner because the heart is in the right place.
Righteousness does not calculate profit or gain for oneself, but extends itself for the good of
others.
ZHI OR WISDOM
● Zhi or wisdom, is the fourth Confucian virtue. It is represented by Water. Wisdom is the Innate
awareness by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. True wisdom comes from our
Buddha nature. This is necessary in the practice of Morality: otherwise one cannot become a
person of virtue.
XIN (TRUSTWORTHINESS)
● Xin is considered as an essential concept of Confucianism and is commonly recognized as the
standard of value and virtue for Chinese people. It represents trustworthiness and integrity. It's
about being honest, keeping your promises, and being reliable. A person with "xin" is someone
you can count on, who always acts with sincerity and doesn't betray your trust. It's about building
 strong relationships based on mutual respect and dependability. Think of it like someone who
always follows through on their commitments, even when it's difficult, because they value honesty
and loyalty above all else.

STRENGTHS
● Benevolence (Ren): The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral
character which can affect the world around a person through the idea of cosmic harmony. moral
character is achieved through the virtue of ren or "humanity," which leads to more virtuous
behaviors such as respect, altruism and humility.
● Filial Piety (Xiao): is an attitude of respect for parents and ancestors in societies influenced by
Confucian thought. Filial piety is demonstrated in part through service to one's parents. It has
shaped family caregiving.
CHALLENGES
● Confucian virtue ethics creates the danger in the tech world that it would allow tech companies to
become overconfident in their understanding. Confucianism is a self-cultivational tradition, and an
emphasis on effort in learning this causes the sense that you already understand everything. This
overconfidence, in tech for example, led companies to develop bad products based on
incomplete information that will just harm users or don't even work.

DEONTOLOGY/CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES

PROPONENT OF DEONTOLOGICAL/CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES

● Immanuel Kant was a famous 18th-century German philosopher and the leader of the
Enlightenment, from whom he proposed and contributed different theories to the philosophy
world. Kant believed that determining what is right should be based on reasoning, disregarding
moral beliefs from religion. In conclusion, Kant extracted two imperatives: the Hypothetical
Imperative. and the Categorical Imperative. Lastly, Kant believed that the Categorical Imperative
is the main principle of determining morality.
IMPORTANT DETAILS AND TRUTHS/BIG IDEAS

IMPERATIVES
● An imperative is a command to act. It is prescriptive. There are two kinds of imperatives:
● A HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES is an order that you must follow to achieve some goal of
yours.
● A CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES is an order that you must follow, irrespective of your other
desires.

There are 3 forms of the categorical imperative:

1. The universal law "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it
should become universal law
2. Treat humans as ends in themselves "Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in
the person of every other human being. never merely as a means, but always at the same time as end
3. Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends. "Act as it you were through your maxim e law making member
of a kingdom of ends
- Maxim succinct formulation of a fundamental principle, general truth, or rule of conduct Simply put
a law or principle

STRENGTHS
RESPECT FOR PERSON
● Recognizes the inherent dignity of individuals. asserting that people should never be treated
merely as means to an end. This principle fosters respect for human rights and individual
autonomy.
EMPHASIS ON DUTY
● It provides a clear framework for moral decision-making that avoids the pitfalls of
consequentialism, which can justify harmful actions if they lead to a perceived greater good.
MORAL ABSOLUTISM
● provides clear moral rules that can guide behavior, which can be comforting and straightforward
in situations that require ethical decision-making.

CHALLENGES

CONFLICT DUTIES
● Kant's theory implies that moral obligations are absolute and universal. but real life scenarios
frequently contain conflicts between two or more duties, making it difficult to discern which duty
take precedence.
IGNORING CONSEQUENCES
● Its emphasis on the intention (or will) behind actions rather than the consequences of the actions.
RIGIDITY
● Strict adherence to rules without flexibility and can lead to outcomes that are seen as unfair or
unreasonable.

Natural Law Theory

Proponent

St. Thomas Aquinas

• He is the most famous proponent of natural law.
• He expanded Aristotle's concept of "Final Cause" and integrated them with Christian's theology
• He described natural law as a 'moral code of existence' created by God.

Important Details
1. It's applicable to all, even if one has different religions, culture and beliefs.
2. We are inherently born with these principles such as moral values, and responsibilities that embody
natural law.
3. Natural law theory states that we should base our civic law in morality and ethics.
4. We can come to know natural theory through our rational thinking and questioning.

Truth/Big Ideas
1. It is based on the structure of reality.
2. It is an unchanging rule or pattern which is there for human beings to discover.
3. It is the naturally knowable moral law.
4. It is a means by which people everywhere (individuals and as communities) can be enriched and
rewarded.

STRENGTHS
1. It's simple and Universal
2. It's Objective
3. There is some flexibility
4. Aquinas allows us to change secondary precepts according to cultures and values.

CHALLENGES
1. It's too simplistic and discriminatory
2. Outcomes are important
3. Ideas from right and wrong differ from society to society
4. It's too legalistic or not legalistic enough

Virtue Ethics BUDDHIST

Proponent

● SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA (BUDDHA) WAS THE FOUNDER OF BUDDHISM:

● •LIVED IN 5TH CENTURY BC.
● BORN IN NE INDIA (NEPAL)
● AT 29 HE REJECTED HIS LUXURIOUS LIFE TO SEEK ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SOURCE
OF SUFFERING.
● BECAME THE "THE ENLIGHTENED ONE" AT 35.

Important Details
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
● DUKKHA (SUFFERING)-REPRESENTS AN INEVITABLE TRUTH ABOUT LIFE. THIS TRUTH
IS THAT EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL PAIN AND SUFFERING AS WELL AS
DISSATISFACTION ARE EXPERIENCED BY EVERY HUMAN BEING NATURALLY.
-BUDDHISTS MUST ALSO STRIVE TO END SUFFERING BY UNDERSTANDING WHY
PEOPLE SUFFER.
● SAMUDAYA (ORIGIN OF SUFFERING)-THE CAUSE OF SUFFERING IS CLINGING OR
CRAVING, DRIVEN BY IGNORANCE OF THE TRUE NATURE OF REALITY--THIS INCLUDES
CRAVING FOR SENSORY PLEASURES. CLINGING TO DESIRES, AND TRYING TO HOLD ON
TO THINGS THAT ARE IMPERMANENT. THE CAUSE OF SUFFERING IS WANTING THINGS
TO BE OTHER THAN HOW THEY ARE.
● NIRODHA (CESSATION OF SUFFERING)-IT IS POSSIBLE TO BE FREE FROM SUFFERING
BY LETTING GO OF CRAVING AND ATTACHMENT-THIS STATE IS ACHIEVED WHEN ONE
LETS GO OF GRASPING AND AVERSION AND RESTS IN THE CALM CLARITY OF THE
PRESENT MOMENT.
● MAGGA (THE PATH OF LIBERATION)-THE EIGHTFOLD PATH, ALSO KNOWN AS THE
MIDDLE WAY PATH IS THE PATH THAT LEADS TO THE END OF SUFFERING.
THE FIVE PERCEPT OF BUDDHIST
● NOT KILLING-THIS PRECEPT EMPHASIZES NON-HARMING AND RESPECT FOR THE
SANCTITY OF LIFE -IT ENCOMPASSES REFRAINING FROM INTENTIONALLY CAUSING
HARM, KILLING, OR ENGAGING IN VIOLENCE TOWARD SENTIENT BEINGS.
● NOT STEALING-THIS PRECEPT PROMOTES HONESTY, INTEGRITY. AND RESPECT FOR
OTHERS' PROPERTY. -IT INVOLVES REFRAINING FROM STEALING, CHEATING, OR
ENGAGING IN DISHONESTY OR EXPLOITATION. ANOTHER READING OF THIS PRECEPT
COUNSELS US "NOT TO TAKE WHAT IS NOT FREELY GIVEN.”
 ● NOT MISUSING SEX-THIS PRECEPT ENCOURAGES ETHICAL AND RESPONSIBLE SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR. -IT INVOLVES REFRAINING FROM ENGAGING IN SEXUAL MISCONDUCT.
SUCH AS ADULTERY, SEXUAL EXPLOITATION, OR ACTING WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF
ONE'S PARTNER
● NOT ENGAGING IN FALSE SPEECH-THIS PRECEPT PROMOTES HONESTY,
TRUTHFULNESS, AND RESPONSIBLE SPEECH. IT INVOLVES REFRAINING FROM LYING,
GOSSIPING, SLANDERING, OR ENGAGING IN HARMFUL SPEECH.
● NOT INDULGING IN INTOXICANTS-THIS PRECEPT ENCOURAGES MINDFULNESS,
CLARITY OF MIND, AND SELF-CONTROL -IT INVOLVES REFRAINING FROM CONSUMING
ALCOHOL OR ANY OTHER INTOXICANTS IN ANY WAY THAT IMPAIRS JUDGMENT,
MINDFULNESS, AND ETHICAL CONDUCT.

KEY VIRTUES OF THE BUDDHIST

1. WISDOM (PRAJNA)-REALIZATION OR AWARENESS OF THE TRUE NATURE OF REALITY THAT
TRANSCENDS ORDINARY COMPREHENSION.
2. GENEROSITY (DANA)-IT CAN TAKE THE FORM OF GIVING TO AN INDIVIDUAL IN DISTRESS OR
NEED, OR OF PHILANTHROPIC PUBLIC PROJECTS THAT EMPOWER AND HELP MANY.
3. PATIENCE (KHANTI/KSANTI)-PATIENCE CAN BE DESCRIBED AS A GOOD ANTIDOTE TO
ANGER, ILL-WILL AND HATRED ONE NEEDS TO POSSESS TWO BASIC MOTIVES IN ORDER TO
GENUINELY DEVELOP THE VIRTUE OF PATIENCE.
4. HONESTY (SACCA)-IT MEANS SPEAKING TRUTHFULLY AND HONESTLY, IT ALSO MEANS
USING SPEECH TO BENEFIT OTHERS, AND NOT TO USE IT TO BENEFIT ONLY OURSELVES
5. PERFECTION (PARAMITAS)-ANY OF THE PERFECTIONS, OR TRANSCENDENTAL VIRTUES,
PRACTICED BY BODHISATTVAS IN ADVANCED STAGES OF THEIR PATH TOWARD
ENLIGHTENMENT.

THE ROLE OF KARMA AND REBIRTH

● KARMA-IS A SANSKRIT TERM THAT LITERALLY MEANS "ACTION" OR "DOING". IN THE
BUDDHIST TRADITION, KARMA REFERS TO ACTION DRIVEN BY INTENTION (CETANA)
WHICH LEADS TO FUTURE CONSEQUENCES
● REBIRTH-REFERS TO THE TEACHING THAT THE ACTIONS OF A SENTIENT BEING LEAD
TO A NEW EXISTENCE AFTER DEATH, IN AN ENDLESS CYCLE CALLED
SAMSARA.-SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS REINCARNATION OR TRANSMIGRATION,
ASSERTS THAT REBIRTH TAKES PLACE IN ONE OF THE SIX REALMS OF SAMSARA, THE
REALMS OF GODS, DEMI-GODS, HUMANS, THE ANIMAL REALM, THE GHOST REALM AND
HELL REALMS.
● THE REALM OF REBIRTH IS CONDITIONED BY THE KARMA (DEEDS, INTENT) OF
CURRENT AND PREVIOUS LIVES: GOOD KARMA WILL YIELD A HAPPIER REBIRTH INTO
GOOD REALMS WHILE BAD KARMA IS BELIEVED TO PRODUCE REBIRTH WHICH IS MORE
UNHAPPY AND EVIL.

THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH

1. RIGHT VIEW -IS TO REMEMBER THAT OUR ACTIONS HAVE CONSEQUENCES. BECAUSE
KARMA EXISTS WE BENEFIT FROM LIVING IN A WAY THAT MINIMIZES HARM.
2. RIGHT INTENTION-IS THE COMMITMENT TO FOSTER THIS MOMENT-TO-MOMENT
MINDFULNESS OF THOUGHT. -RIGHT INTENTION IS ALSO THE PRACTICE CLARIFYING
OUR WHY.
3. RIGHT SPEECH-RIGHT VIEW AND NOBLE INTENTION GUIDES US TO CEASE SPEAKING
IN HARMFUL WAYS. WE REFRAIN FROM LYING AND DO OUR BEST TO COMMUNICATE
 CLEARLY. WE AVOID SPEAKING IN WAYS THAT ARE DIVISIVE. WE REFRAIN FROM HARSH
OR ABUSIVE SPEECH, AND AVOID IDLE SPEECH, REMAINING SILENT UNLESS WE HAVE
SOMETHING USEFUL TO SAY.
4. RIGHT ACTION-RIGHT ACTION IS TO CEASE HARMING OTHERS WITH OUR BODY, TOO.
WE REFRAIN FROM KILLING OTHER LIVING BEINGS, STEALING, OR HARMING OTHERS
WITH OUR SEXUAL BEHAVIOR.
5. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD -MOST OF US SPEND A LARGE PORTION OF OUR LIVES IN PURSUIT
OF LIVELIHOOD. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD IS THE COMMITMENT TO ETHICAL BUSINESS
PRACTICE.
6. RIGHT EFFORT-RIGHT EFFORT ADDRESSES THE QUALITIES OF MIND WE MUST
CULTIVATE TO REMAIN VIGILANT ALONG THE PAΤΗ. IT'S NOT ENOUGH TO STOP
BEHAVING IN HARMFUL OR UNHELPFUL
7. RIGHT MINDFULNESS-UP UNTIL THIS POINT, WE'VE LIVED WITHOUT CONSIDERING
RIGHT VIEW, RIGHT INTENTION, RIGHT SPEECH AND THE REST. WE'RE NOT IN THE
HABIT OF WATCHING OUR THOUGHTS, SPEECH AND ACTIONS. BY TRAINING IN RIGHT
MINDFULNESS, WE AVOID SLIPPING INTO THE HABITUAL BEHAVIORS THAT CAUSE
HARM. WE CAN BEGIN BY LEARNING HOW TO MINDFULLY OBSERVE OUR OWN BREATH.
8. RIGHT CONCENTRATION-HAVING APPLIED RIGHT EFFORT AND TRAINED IN
MINDFULNESS, WE ENTER A STATE OF RIGHT CONCENTRATION. IN THIS STATE WE
HAVE SUCCESSFULLY WITHDRAWN FROM THE DISTRACTIONS WHICH KEEP US IN AN
UNSKILLFUL AND UNBENEFICIAL STATE OF MIND. WE REST, SINGLE- POINTEDLY, IN A
STATE OF AWARENESS MEDITATION. IN THIS STATE, WE EXPERIENCE THE BLISS THAT
ARISES HAVING FREED OURSELVES FROM OUR PAIN
THE NOBLE THREEFOLD PATH
1. ETHICS
2. MEDITATION
3. WISDOM

ETHICS
-RIGHT SPEECH
- RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
-RIGHT ACTION

WISDOM
RIGHT VIEW
RIGHT INTENTION

MEDITATION
RIGHT MINDFULNESS
RIGHT EFFORT
RIGHT CONCENTRATION

Truth/Big ideas
BUDDHIST VIRTUE ETHICS TEACHES THAT CULTIVATING VIRTUES LIKE COMPASSION, WISDOM,
AND NON-ATTACHMENT LEADS TO PERSONAL AND SPIRITUAL GROWTH, REDUCING
SUFFERING FOR BOTH ONESELF AND OTHERS. IT EMPHASIZES THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS
OF ALL BEINGS AND HIGHLIGHTS SEVEN KEY TRUTHS:
1] ALL BEINGS ARE INTERCONNECTED, AND COMPASSIONATE ACTIONS BENEFIT BOTH
ONESELF AND OTHERS:

2) CULTIVATING VIRTUES LIKE COMPASSION, PATIENCE, AND WISDOM IS ESSENTIAL FOR

ACHIEVING ENLIGHTENMENT:

3) SUFFERING ARISES FROM GREED, HATRED, AND IGNORANCE, WHICH MUST BE OVERCOME
THROUGH VIRTUOUS BEHAVIOR:

4) MINDFULNESS AND INTENTION ARE CRITICAL IN ETHICAL LIVING, GUIDING VIRTUOUS

ACTIONS WITH AWARENESS AND PURPOSE:

5) ETHICAL CONDUCT AND WISDOM ARE INSEPARABLE. REINFORCING EACH OTHER:

6) NON-ATTACHMENT TO MATERIAL THINGS AND DESIRES IS A PATH TO INNER FREEDOM AND

HARMONY: AND

7) LIVING ETHICALLY REDUCES SUFFERING FOR ALL BEINGS, CONTRIBUTING TO A MORE

PEACEFUL AND HARMONIOUS WORLD

Strengths

1.HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT - FUSES OF ETHICAL AND MORAL BEHAVIOR WITH KNOWLEDGE OF

THE MIND. LEADING TO A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE.

2.IT TEACHES US COMPASSION & NON-HARM - STRESSES ON SUFFERING RELIEF AND

WELFARE OF ALL BEINGS, HELPS TO CREATE A COMPASSIONATE SOCIETY.

3.ADAPTABILITY-WORKS IN MANY CULTURES AND CONTEXTS: CAN BE ADJUSTED TO

OPPORTUNITIES OR PROBLEMS ACROSS REGIONS.

4. PRACTICAL ETHICAL ADVICE CLEAR GUIDANCE VIA THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AND
PRECEPTS MEANS IT IS USER-FRIENDLY AND APPLICABLE TO EVERYDAY LIVING.

Challenges
• EXPANSION OF OTHER RELIGIONS AROUND THE WORLD.
• TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT. LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION.
• BAD INFLUENCES.
• MISINTERPRETATIONS ON BUDDHISM.
• LACK OF INSTITUTIONS FOR BOTH THEORY AND PRACTICAL STUDIES.
• LACK OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF AGENTS, IN THE MODERN WORLD.
• CONVERTING PROBLEMS DUE TO THE GIVEN CONTEXT OF THE WORLD

Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)

Proponent
● Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, is the key proponent of virtue ethics. He emphasized the
development of good character and the pursuit of eudaimonia (flourishing) through the cultivation
of virtues.
Important Details and Big Ideas

Aristotle's Ethical Framework

• Focus on virtues and their role in achieving a good life.
• Virtue (Arete) is tied to the use of reason, which distinguishes humans from other living beings.

Human Virtue (Arete)

1. Distinctively Human Quality
• The function of humans is the activity of the soul (thinking and doing well) in accordance with reason.

Two Kinds of Virtues

Intellectual Virtues:
• Related to professions and activities requiring specific skills (e.g., a truck driver, cook, lawyer, • farmer,
doctor).
• Wisdom, understanding, and knowledge.
• Cultivated through instruction and learning. Moral Virtues:
• Common to all humans, varying in degree according to individual capacities.Courage, temperance,
justice, etc.
• Developed through practice and habituation.
• Emphasizing the importance of early training in habits.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)

Phronesis is the ability to make good decisions and take appropriate actions in various situations.
Components of Phronesis
• Experience
• Good Judgment
• Deliberation

Character and Habit

CHARACTER
Good character leads to good actions. Character is developed through habits
HABIT
Repeated actions form habits.
Habits shape character over time.

Teleology
Teleology is the philosophical study of purpose and design, particularly in natural phenomena. • The term
is derived from the Greek word 'telos', meaning 'end' or 'goal'.

Teleological Nature of Virtue Ethics: Purpose-Driven suggests that traits like honesty are important not
only because they are right in specific situations but because they contribute to an overall flourishing life..
Holistic Approach focuses on the continuous cultivation of virtues, much like an athlete who practices
daily to improve.

EUDAIMOΝΙΑ
• Ευ (εύ) Meaning "good" or "well."
• Daimon (δαίμων) Referring to a spirit or divine entity. In this context, it can be understood as one's
guiding spirit or inner self. • Often translated as "happiness," but it more accurately means "flourishing" or
"living well."
• It represents the highest good that humans can achieve and is the ultimate goal of life.

The Golden Mean in Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

• Every ethical virtue is a balance (the "Golden Mean") between two extremes: excess and deficiency.
• Similar to technical skills, a virtuous person knows how to avoid both extremes and find the right
balance in each situation.

Strength

● Emphasis on character and moral development

● Flexibility in moral decision-making
● Focus on long-term well-being and personal growth
● Encourages a holistic approach to ethics, integrating emotions and rationality.
Challenges
• Difficulty in defining and applying the "mean" in diverse situations.
• Potential cultural relativity of virtues.
• The challenge of identifying role models or exemplars.
• Critique from other ethical theories like utilitarianism and deontology.

Consequentialism (Utilitarianism)

PROPONENTS
JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832)
● He was a philosopher and theoretical jurist who is credited with contributing to the development of
utilitarianism.
● Bentham today is considered as the "Father of Utilitarianism"
● In 1776 Bentham published his first book A Fragment on Government.
● According to Jeremy Bentham's utilitarian theory, man's actions caused both the pleasure and the
pain. That is also known as hedonistic calculus.
● Bentham believed the laws were lengthy, unclear, and hard to understand. Bentham defined his
theory of utilitarianism in his book The Introduction to the Principled of Morals and Legislation
published in 1789
● Bentham, who apparently believed that the individual in controlling his own actions would always
look for the maximum gratification and minimum pain to himself, found both pleasure and pain to
be the cause of human action and also as the basis of normative criterion of action.
JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873)
● John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher, political economist, civil servant, and politician.
Among other things, he elaborated on political theory, social theory, and political theory.
● He's best known for his 1848 book, Principles of Political Economy
● Some of John Stuart Mill's contributions are Principles of Political Economy, Autobiography, On
Liberty, A System of Logic, The Subjection of Women, and Utilitarianism.
● The most famous utilitarian was John Stuart Mill, a consequential ethical theory weighing the
results-good or bad-according to which outcomes determine ethical correctness.
● Mill's utilitarianism holds that utility is based upon happiness produced and unhappiness avoided.

HENRY SIDGWICK (1838-1900)

● Henry Sidgwick was an English utilitarian philosopher and economist, and is most well-known for
his book on utilitarianism called "The Methods of Ethics"
 ● Utilitarianism simply tries to answer the question of "What ought a person to do?" And then the
result should be that a person ought to act so as to maximize happiness or pleasure and to
minimize unhappiness or pain.
IMPORTANT DETAILS

● Consequentialism, particularly utilitarianism is an ethical theory where the rightness or wrongness

of an action depends on the consequence of the action. This theory holds that an action is
morally right if it has right effects; or that an action which is wrong will have wrong consequences.
It is, however, important to notice that the above described consequentialism is teleological,
which is focused not on what is done, but the consequences of the action with no relation to
motives.
● Utilitarianism it's a moral idea that supports doing things that bring happiness and avoiding things
that cause unhappiness.

2 PRINCIPLES OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
1. Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act.
2. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act.

UTILITARIANISM AS A CENTRAL FORM OF CONSEQUENTIALISM

Utilitarianism constitutes as a part of consequentialism which is the majority of the theory proposed by
Jermey Bentham. Well-known among them are utilitarianism which aims at achieving the greatest good
which more often means, happiness, pleasure or satisfaction. The fundamental concept of utilitarianism is
the principle of 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number'. An action that makes the total happiness
sum becomes greater or reduces suffering should be considered moral.

It highlights the following:

● The goal is to create the most happiness and minimize suffering for as many people as possible.
● Actions are morally right if they lead to greater happiness and are morally wrong if they result in
unhappiness or harm.
● Utilitarianism treats everyone's happiness equally, regardless of who they are.

2 FORMS OF UTILITARIANISM

ACT OF UTILITARIANISM
Focuses on the consequences of individual actions. An action is right if it brings about the best possible
outcome in that specific situation.

RULE OF UTILITARIANISM
Argues that we should follow rules that, when generally followed, lead to the greatest happiness. The
morality of an action depends on whether it aligns with rules that promote overall well-being.

HEDONISM AND HAPPINESS

Hedonism It is a philosophical theory that holds pleasure and happiness as the highest and most
important goods in life.

Happiness In the utilitarian sense, refers to the overall well-being or satisfaction that results from an
action.

Ethical Egoism
 ● Do what maximizes favorable consequences for yourself.
Ethical Altruism
● Do what maximizes favorable consequences for others.

Primary version: Utilitarianism

Principle of Utility: do what maximizes overall favorable consequences for everyone.

STRENGTHS
● 1. IT FOCUSES ON THE OUTCOMES Consequentialism Prioritizes the results of actions by
thinking and predicting what will be the effects and impact in the future, and not just now.
● It also considers what effects of actions will have on happiness, suffering, or overall well-being.
● 2. FLEXIBLE AND PRACTICAL It can be applied to wide or many situations and problems,
whether they are personal, social, or global, personal choices, or even larger issues. It can adapt
to different contexts of situations.
● This means that it can find solutions that fit the specific problem you are facing. Furthermore, it
allows people to choose different ways to achieve good outcomes, encouraging creative thinking.
● 3. Encourages Long-Term Thinking Other than creative thinking, consequentialism encourages to
think longer to emphasize, understand, or highlight the overall impact of actions over time. By
focusing on long-term outcomes, it promotes more strong choices that will benefit both current
and future results, ensuring that ethical decisions contribute to lasting well-being.
● 4. Encourage accountability Consequentialism always focuses on outcomes. When individuals
understand that their actions have direct consequences on others, they are more likely to think
carefully about their choices. As a result of it, individuals may be more mindful to act thoughtfully
and ethically, trying to make decisions that maximize positive outcomes and minimize harm. This
accountability can lead to better interpersonal relationships and a stronger sense of community,
as people recognize their interconnectedness and the impact of their actions on others.

WEAKNESSES

CHALLENGES OF UNCERTAINTY
The future is uncertain, so we must make sound decisions, as the consequences of our actions are
unpredictable.

UTILITARIANS ARE FOCUSED ON STATE OF AFFAIRS

Which means that Utilitarianism is concerned with the result, or consequences, of one's actions, and
disregards other features like one's motives or reasons for acting.

SELFLESSNESS FOR THE HAPPINESS OF OTHERS

It means making a choice to prioritize the well-being of the group, even if it comes at a personal cost.

PROBLEM OF NEGATIVE RESPONSIBILITY In Consequentialism, people are not only responsible for
their own actions but also it can lead to the idea that individuals are morally responsible for harms they
did not directly cause but failed to prevent