BCE3214: Hydraulics

& Hydraulic
structures

Lecture 3 – Open channel flow

Fluid energy and flow in open channels

• Flow of water in a conduit may be open channel or pipe flow

• Open channel flow must have a conduit while pipe flow has none
• A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. In pipe flow, there exist no direct atmospheric
pressure but hydraulic pressure only

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Fluid energy and flow in open channels

Pipe flow
• Two piezometers are placed in the pipe at sections 1 and 2
• The water levels in the pipes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented
by the hydraulic grade line
• The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is shown by the height y of a
column of water above the centerline of the pipe
• Z is the elevation of the centerline from the datum
Open channel flow
• The hydraulic gradient is the water surface as the depth of water corresponds to the piezometric
height
• Z is the elevation of the channel bed from the datum

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Fluid energy and flow in open channels

• Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems of
flow in open channels. Flow conditions in open channels are complicated by the position of the
free surface which will change with space and time
• Physical conditions in open channels vary much more than in pipes-the cross section of pipes is
usually round-but for open channels, it can be any shape
• Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. E.g the flow depth may vary between a
few cm in water treatment plants and over 10m in large rivers. Same thing with velocity and
discharge
• The flow situation is characterized by a free surface whose position is not known beforehand. It is
determined by applying momentum and continuity principles
• Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than pressure as in pipes

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Differences between pipe flow and open channel flow

Pipe flow Open channel flow

Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity (potential energy)

Flow cross section Known (fixed) Unknown in advance because the

flow depth is unknown

Characteristics flow parameters Velocity deduced from continuity Flow depth deduced
simultaneously from solving both
continuity and momentum
eqautions

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Types of flow in open channels
• Steady and unsteady-Time is the criterion
Flow is said to be steady if the depth at a particular point does not change with time. The flow is
unsteady if the depth changes with time
• Uniform flow-Space is the criterion
Flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at every section of the
channel.
• Steady uniform flow-Depth and velocity is constant with both time and distance
• Steady non-uniform flow-Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be
either gradually varied or rapidly varied. Gradually varied requires the application of energy and
frictional resistance equations, while Rapidly varied requires the energy and momentum
equations
• Unsteady non-uniform flow-Depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common
type of flow and requires the solution of the energy, momentum and friction equations with time

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Properties of open channels
Artificial channels
• Made by man
• Include irrigation canals, navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches
• Usually constructed in a regular cross-section throughout and are thus prismatic channels (don’t widen or get
narrower along the channel)
• Commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and have the surface roughness reasonably well defined
• Analysis of flow in well defined channels will give reasonably accurate results
Natural channels
• Not regular or prismatic
• Construction materials can vary widely although mainly of earth
• Surface roughness changes with time distance and even elevation
• Hence difficult to accurately analyze and obtain accurate results for natural channels
• Situation may be further complicated if the boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments

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Properties of open channels
Geometric properties for analysis
• Various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required for analysis
• For artificial channels, they can usually be defined by simple algebraic equations if given y, the
depth of flow
Commonly needed geometric properties
• Depth(y) – vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free surface
• Stage(z) – vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
• Area(A) – cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow
• Wetted perimeter(P) – length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of flow
• Surface width(B) – width of the channel section at the free surface
• Hydraulic radius(R) – ratio of area to wetted perimeter
• Hydraulic mean depth(𝐷𝑚 ) – ratio of area to surface width

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Geometric properties of some common shapes

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Fundamental equations
• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of energy
• Conservation of momentum
Continuity equation (conservation of mass)
Mass flow entering =mass flow leaving
𝜌𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 =𝜌𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴1 𝑢1 =𝐴2 𝑢2
The energy equation (conservation of energy)
𝑃1 𝑢1 2 𝑃2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 - Bernoulli’s equation
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
In the derivation of the Bernoulli equation, it was assumed that no energy is lost in the control
volume i.e. the fluid is frictionless. To apply to non-frictionless situations, some energy loss term
must be considered

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Fundamental equations

The momentum equation (momentum principle)

Momentum entering=momentum leaving
Given by 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2𝑥 − 𝑉1𝑥 )
This is the momentum equation for steady flow for a region of uniform velocity
Energy and momentum coefficients
• In deriving the momentum and energy equations, it was noted that the velocity must be constant
over the whole cross-section or constant along a streamline
• These will not occur in practice
• This is possible by the introduction of coefficients of energy and momentum, 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽
respectively
• V is the mean velocity

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Fundamental equations

Bernoulli equation in terms of mean velocity

Integrating the momentum coefficient in the momentum equation, the momentum equation
becomes

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Velocity distribution in open channels

• The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section because of
friction along the boundary
• The maximum velocity is found just below the surface. Because of secondary currents which are
circulating from the boundaries towards the section centre and resistance at the air water
interface
Typical velocity distributions across some channel cross-sections

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Determination of energy and momentum coefficients

• To determine the values, the velocity distribution must have been measured
• Irregular channels-flow may be divided into distinct regions

• Assuming 𝛼 = 1 for each

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Laminar and turbulent flow
• As in pipes, the flow in an open channel may be either laminar or turbulent
• The criterion for determining the type of flow is Reynolds number

• If we take the characteristic length as the hydraulic radius R, then for a pipe flowing full, R=D/4

• Limits for each type of flow for open channel

Laminar: 𝑅𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 < 500
Turbulent: 𝑅𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 > 500
In practice, the limit for turbulent flow is not so well defined for open channel flow as in pipes, so 2000 is
usually taken as the threshold for turbulent flow

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Laminar and turbulent flow

Effect of friction
Taking the Darcy Weisbach formula for head loss due to friction in a pipe in turbulent flow

Making the substitution for hydraulic radius, R=D/4

𝐿
And putting bed slope 𝑆𝑜 =
ℎ𝑓

Then

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Laminar and turbulent flow

• The Colebrook White equation gives the f-Re relationship for pipes, putting in R=D/4, the
equation for open channel flow is

In practice, open channel flow is usually in the rough turbulent zone and consequently simpler
friction formulae may be applied to relate frictional losses to velocity and channel shape
Chezy equation
2𝑔
Where 𝐶 =
𝑓

Manning equation
1
𝑅 ൗ6
𝐶= where n is the manning’s coefficient
𝑛

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Laminar and turbulent flow

Substituting in the Chezy formula

2ൗ 1
𝑅 3 𝑆𝑜 ൗ2
𝑉=
𝑛
And in terms of discharge

5
1 𝐴 ൗ3 1ൗ
𝑄= 2 𝑆𝑜 2
𝑛 𝑃 ൗ3

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Conveyance, K

• Measure of the carrying capacity of the channel

5ൗ
1ൗ 𝐴 3
𝐾 = 𝐴𝐶𝑅 2 = 2ൗ
𝑛𝑃 3

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Computations in uniform flow

• Can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate to calculate steady uniform flow
• Two calculations usually performed to solve uniform flow problems
✓ Discharge from a given depth
✓ Depth for a given discharge
• In steady uniform flow, the flow depth is known as the normal depth
Uniform flow example – discharge from a given depth
A concrete lined trapezoidal channel with uniform flow has a normal depth of 2m. The base width is
5m and the side slopes are equal at 1:2. Manning’s n can be taken as 0.015 and the bed slope, 𝑆𝑜 as
0.001. what is the discharge, mean velocity and Reynolds number?

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Computations in uniform flow

Uniform flow example-depth from a given discharge

Using the same channel as above, the discharge is known to be 30𝑚3 /𝑠 in uniform flow. What is
the normal depth?
Uniform flow example-compound channel
If the channel in the above example were designed for flooding, it may have a section like

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Computations in uniform flow

• When the flow goes over the top of the trapezoidal channel, it moves to the flood plains, so the
section allows for a lot more discharge to be carried
• If the flood channels are 10m wide, and have side slopes of 1:3, and the Manning’s n on those
banks is 0.035, what is the discharge for a flood level of 4m and the energy coefficient?

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