Maths Short Notes For NDA

By : Arpit Choudhary

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 Sets & Relations
Short Notes For NDA
By : Arpit Choudhary

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 Chapter 1.1
Sets and Subsets, Relations
SETS AND SUBSETS
The concept of set is fundamental to modern mathematics. A well-defined collection of distinct objects is called
a set. A set can be written in two forms:
(i) Tabular form (roster form): Here, the numbers of the set are listed, separated by comma and
enclosed within curly brackets {}.
(ii) Set-builder form: In this form, any typical element of the set is represented by a variable, followed by
properties that must be satisfied by elements of the set.

General definitions
(i) Finite and infinite sets: A set containing a finite number of elements is called a finite set and one
containing an infinite number of element is called an infinite set.
(ii) Equal and equivalent sets: If two sets have same number of elements and also the same
elements, then two sets are equal sets, but if only the number of elements are same, they are equivalent set.
(iii) Unit or singleton set and empty or null or void set: If a set contains only one element, it is called unit
(Singleton) set, and if there is no element in the set, it is called empty, (Null or Void) set.
(iv) Disjoint sets: Two sets are disjoint sets if they do not have any common element.
(v) Subset and superset: If every element of set A is also present in set B, then A is called Subset of B
denoted as A⸦B and read on A is contained in B or A is subset of B. Conversely, if A ⸦ B their B ⸧ A,
which is read as B contains A or B is superset of A.
(vi) Universal set (U): When we consider problems involving sets which are all subsets of a given set, then
set referred to is called universal set.
(vii) Power set: P(A) is the power set of set A, if P(A) contains all subsets of set A.
(viii) Proper set: if set A is subset of set B and has at least one element less than set B, then set A is called
proper set of B.
(ix) Complement of a set: If a is a set of elements which belong to Universal set. U but do not belong of A
is called complement of A and denoted by Ak or A'.
Important Statements
(i)  is subset of every set.
(ii) Every set is subset of itself.
(iii) Equal sets are always equivalent sets, but equivalent sets, may not be equal sets.
(iv) if A contains n elements, then the number of all subsets of A is 2.
(v) If A ⸦ B and B⸦A that A= B.
(vi) The set N {1, 2, 3 . . . . . . ) of all natural numbers.
(vii) The I = {....3, 2, 1,0,1,2,3 } of integer
(viii) 10 is set of all non-zero integers as elements of the set.
p
(ix) Q ={ x:x = ,where p and q are integers and q  0} of all rational numbers.
q
(x) Q0 is set of all non-zero rational numbers.
(xi) Q is set of all positive rational numbers.
(xii) R is set of all real numbers, R0 set of all non-zero real numbers and R is set of all positive
real numbers.
(xiii) C is set of all complex numbers, C0 is set of all non-zero complex numbers.
(xiv) Nk = { l, 2, 3. ..k}, is set of all natural numbers which are less than or equal to k where k is a
positive integer.
(xv) Every subset of an infinite set is a finite set.
Operations on Sets
(a) Logical Connectives A sentence which is either true or false but not both is called a
statement. Hence, if p and q are two statements, then the logical connectives may be defined on:
(i) Conjunction (p ^ q): it denotes a statements which is true if and only if both p and q are true.
 (ii) Disjunction (p ˅ q): it denotes a statement which is true if p is true or q is true or both are
true and is false if both p and q are false.
(iii) Negation —p: ~p is any statement which is true if p is false and is false if p is true.
(iv) One way implication p q: it is a statement which is false only when p is true and q is false
and is true in all other cases. It is read as v implies q' or if p then q' or if p' or p' only if q'.
(v) Contra-positive. If p q then the statement ~q ~p is called the contra-positive of p q.
(vi) Two contra-positive implications. p ↔q is a statement which is true if both p and q are true
or both are false and is false when one of the statements is true and other is false.
(b) Venn-Euler Diagrams It is a schematic representation of sets by set of points.
(i) Starting with universal set is represented by the points within a rectangle and a subset A of
the universal set U is represented by the interior of a circle.
(ii) Set inclusion is depicted by taking one region lying entirely within the other.
(iii) D is joint sets are depicted by non-overlapping regions.
(c) Basic Operations
(i) Union of two sets: If A and B are two sets, then the set of all elements which either belong
to A or to B is called union of the two sets and is denoted by A B and as 'A. union B' or 'A cup B'.

The union of sets {A :  ) is denoted by U{A : A E A) and is defined by

 A :    {x : x  A for at least one   }
If A, B, C are any subsets of U, then
1. A  A  B and B  A  B [Idempotent law]
2. A A A [Identity law]
3. A A
4. A U U [ Commutative law]
5.  A B C  A  B C  [Associative law]
6.    , than U  A :     
(ii) Intersection of two sets: Intersection A and B is two sets of all elements which belong to both A and B
and is denoted By A B read as ‘ A intersection B’.

Let  A    be an indexed family of subsets of U. The arbitrary intersection is denoted by  A :   

and defined by  A :    x : x  A 
If A, B, C are any sets, then
1. A B  A and A B  B [Idempotent law]
2. A A A [Identity law]
3. A  
 4. A UA
5. A BB A [ Commutative law]
6.  A B C  A  B C  [Associative law]
7. If   , than  A :    
(iii) Complement of a set: The complement of a set B relative to another set A is the set of all elements
which belong to A but which do not belong to B and is denoted by A~ B or A B. Thus, A  B = {x : x
 A and x  B )

The complement of set A relative is universal set U is denoted by Aa or A` and is A`= x : x  and x  A
or simply A` =  x : x  A
If, A , B, C are any subsets of U, that
1. A A = f
2. A   A
3. (A B)  A
4.  A  B B  
5.  A  B B  A
6.  A  B  C   A  C    B  C 
7. A   A  B  A B
8. A B  C  A B  A C  A B  C
9.  A  B  B  A   A B   A B
10 A A`
11. A A` 
12. 
13.  `
14.  A`` A
15. A B  A B` B` A`
16. B  A  A`
17. B  A` B A
18. A  B iff B`  A`
19. A  B iff A` = B`
20. If  A :    be subsets of U indexed by a set B and if B  U , then [Distributive law]
(i) B   A :     B A :   
(ii) B   A :     B A :   
21. [De – Morgan’s law] if  A :    bean indexed family of U, then
(i)   A  `  A`   
(ii)   A :   `  A` :   
 22. A B ` A` B`
23. A B ` A` B`
(iv) Cartesian product of two sets: It is the set and  a, b   a  A, b  B is devoted to have, denotes an
ordered pair whose first number, is a and second members is b. Hence, the Cartesian product of two sets
A and B tri set of all ordered pairs whose first member belongs to A and second member belongs to B.
Also, note (a, b) is not the same thing as the set {a, b} for we always know a, b  b, a
IF A, B, C, S, T are sets, then
1. A  B C    A B  A C 
2. A  B C    A B  A C 
3.  A B  S T    A S    B T 
4.  A  B  S   A S    B  S 
5. A  B and C  B   A  C    B  D 
6. If A  B , then A  A   A  B   B  A

Some results about cardinal number (Inclusion-Exclusion Principle)

 Let A and B be any three finite sets, then
―Number of elements, in at least one of them (either A or B)
(i) n (A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
―Number of elements which are not in set A
(ii) n(A)’ = n (U) – n (A)
―Number of elements which are in only Set A
(iii) n(A – B) = n(A) – n(AB)
―Number of elements which are in only Set B
(iv) n(B – A) = n (B) – n (AB)
―Number of elements which are in exactly one of the sets
(v) n(A ∆ B) = n(A) + n (B) – 2 n(AB) = n (AB) – n(AB)
―Number of elements which are in neither Set A nor Set B
(vi) n(AB)’ = n(U) – n(AB)
 Let A, B and C be any three finite sets, then
―Number of elements, in at least one of them (either A, B or C)
(i) n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  B) – n(B  C) – n(C  A) + n(A  B  C)
―Number of elements, in only Set A
(ii) n(A B’ C’) = n(A) – n(AB) – n(AC) + n(ABC)
―Number of elements, which are in only A and B
(iii) n(A B C’) = n(AB) – n(ABC)

Cartesian product of two sets and Relations

Let A and B be any two sets. The Cartesian product of A and B denoted by A  B is the set of all
ordered pairs (x, y) where x  A and y  B.

A  B = {(x, y) | x  A and y  B}

B  A = {(y, x) | y  B and x  A}

In general, A  B is not equal to B  A.

If n (A) = N 1, n (B) = N 2, then n(A  B) = N 1 N 2 = n(B  A).
For example, Let A = {3, 4, 7}; B = {a, m, q, r}

Then, A  B = {(3, a), (3, m), (3, q), (3, r), (4, a), (4, m), (4, q), (4, r), (7, a), (7, m), (7, q), (7, r)}

B  A = {(a, 3), (a, 4), (a, 7), (m, 3), (m, 4), (m, 7), (q, 3), (q, 4), (q, 7), (r, 3), (r, 4), (r, 7)}

Note that A  B  B  A

RELATIONS
A relation between two sets, A and B is any subset of A × B. Symbolically, R is relation from A to B.

If R  A B and A  B , we say that R is a relation on A.

Thus, R  A B and R=  a, b  |  a, b   AB, a is R  related to B
We write it as’ aRb’ and read it as ‘a’ is in relation to ‘b’.
To domain of a relation R in the set of first element of The range of a relation R is the set of second
the ordered pair in R.\ Thus, domain of elements of the ordered pair in R thus, range of
   
R a  R, for some b  B  R a  R, for some a  A
  a , b     a , b  

A relation in a set A is a subset of A × A. Thus, R  A  A, and R =  a, b  /  a, b   A  A, aRb

The inverse of a relation R is: R1 = {(b, a)| (a, b)  R}
A relation R from A to A is said to be reflexive if (x, x)  R for every x  A.

A relation R in a set A is said to be symmetric if aRa  bRa if(a, b)  R , then b, a   R, a, b 
Let R be a relation on a set A, then R is said to be antisymmetric iff aRb and bRa a = b, also R  R 1  R
whose is the identify relation on A.
A relation R from A to A is said to be transitive if (x, y) and (y, z)  R imply (x, z)  R.
R is said to be an equivalence relation iff.
(i) R is reflexive
(ii) R is symmetric
(iii) R is transitive’

Examples
1. The smallest set A such that A (2,3) {1, 2,3,5,9,10) is
(a) {2,3,5)
(b) (3,5,9}
(c) (1, 2, 5, 9)
(d) {1,5,9,10}
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
A [2,3] {l,2,3,5,9,10} A= {1,5,9,10}.

2. A has 4 elements and B has 7 elements such that A ⸦ B. The number of elements in A U B is
(a) 3
(b) 9
(c) 7
(d) 4
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
ABAB
 Number of elements in A  B = 7.

3. Let A{p, q, r) and B = {u, v, w}, then n(A × B)is equal to

(a) 6
(b) 9
(c) 3
(d) 
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
n (A × B) = n(A)n(B) = (3)(3) = 9

4. Let A(1, 2, 3),B = {2, 3, 4), C = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A ∩ (B  C) is

(a) {1, 2, 3}
(b) {2, 3, 4)
(c) {1, 2, 4, 5}
(d) {5}
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
BC={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A (B C) = {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
= {1, 2, 3}.

5. If K is any set that K-K is equal to

(a) K
(b) KC
(c) 
(d) 
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
KK={x: xK and x K}=.

6. Let L and M be two disjoint subsets of a universal set U. Then, (L M) ∩M'
(a) L
(b) M
(c) 
(d) L`
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
(LM')(MM')=L=L
Since Land M are disjoint.

7. If l and m are two sets, then L∩ (L M) equals

(a) l
(b) m
(c) 
 (d) U
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
If l  m then lm= m and l  m= l
If m l then l m= m and l  m = l.

8. If T is any set, the

(a) TT'=
(b) TT'= X
(c) T  T' = X
(d) 
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
TT'=X(by def.).

9. Which of the following is a Null set?

(a) {0}
(b) {x; x > 0 or x <0}
(c) x : x 2
 4 or x  3
(d) x : x 1  0, x  R
2

Answer: (d)
Explanation:
x2 + l= 0x =±i
{x : x2 + 1 = 0, x  R} = , will set.

10. If K and N are two sets, then K  N = K  N iff

(a) K⸦N
(b) 4=N
(c) N⸦K
(d) 2=N
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
NK
Let xK xKN [KKN]
 xKN [KN =KN]
x  K and x  N
x N Similarly xN,xK KN.

11. If D and H are two sets, then D(D  H)' is

(a) D
(b) H
(c) 
(d) 1
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
D(DH)=D(D'H')=(DD')H'=H'=

12. E, F be any two sets, then (E  F)' is equal to

(a) E'F'
 (b) E F
(c) E'F'
(d) EF
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
(E F)' = E’ F' [by De-Morgan's law].

13. If K, N be any two sets, then (K  N)' equals

(a) K'  N'
(b) K'  N'
(c) KN
(d) KN
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
(KN)' = K'  N' [by De-Morgan's law].

14. If K  N then A  N is equal to

(a) K
(b) N
(c) Kc
(d) NC
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
K  N  K  N = K.

15. If C  D then C  D is equal to

(a) C
(b) D
(c) Cc
(d) DC
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
C  D'  C  D = D.

16. Two Sets F, H are disjoint if

(a) FH=
(b) FH 
(c) FH=
(d) FH=F
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
F and H are disjoint if F  H =[Def. of disjoint sets].

17. If F and G are any two sets, then F(F  G)is equal to
(a) F
(b) G
(c) Fc
(d) GC
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
FGF
F (FG) = F.

18. If E and I are any two sets, then E  (E  I)is equal to

(a) E
(b) I
(c) Ec
(d) IC
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
E  E  I
E  (E  I)= E.

19. If L and O are sets, then L  (O  L)is

(a) 
(b) O
(c) LO
(d) LO
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
xOLxL
x  L  (O  L)
 xL and xL
L(OL)=.

20. If L, M, C are three sets, then L  (M  C) is equal to

(a) (LM)(LC)
(b) (LM)(LC)
(c) (L  M)  (L  C)
(d) (LM)(LC)
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
L(ML)=(LM)(LC)[by Distribution law].

21. If U and X are disjoint, then n(UX) is equal to

(a) n(U)
(b) n(X)
(c) n(U) + n(X)
(d) n(U) n(X)
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
As U and X are disjoint
UX=
 n(UX)=0
n(U  X) = n(U) + n(X) n(U X) = n(U) + n(X) 0 = n(U) + n(X).

22. A set is
(a) a collection of objects
 (b) a collection of objects with a fixed common property
(c) a well-defined collection of objects.
(d) a group of objects
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
A set is a well-defined collection of objects

23. If A = {a}, which of the following statement is correct?

(a) A=a
(b) aA
(c) {a}A
(d) aA
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
Clearly, a  A is true.

24. If A = {a, b, {c, d}}, which of the following is a correct statement?

(a) cA
(b) {a}A
(c) {b}A
(d) aA
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
(a)  A is true.

25. If A = {p, {q, r), t), which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a) {q,r}A
(b) {{q,r})A
(c) {r} A
(d) {t} A
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
Since r A, So, {r} A is incorrect

26. If A = {2, {8,9}, 6}, which of the following is correct?

(a) {2}A
(b) {8}A
(c) {9}A
(d) {8,9}A
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
Clearly, (8, 9}  A.

27. If A {a, {b,c}, d}, which of the following is a subset of A?

(a) {a,b}
(b) {b,c}
(c) {c,d}
(d) {a,d}
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
Since a  A and d  A, So (a, d}d.

 1 
28. Let A  3,  , 3, , 5, 2  5  the subset of A containing all the elements from it which are
 7 
irrational number is
(a)  , 3, 2  5 
 1 
(b) 3,  , , 5, 2  5 
 7 
 1 
(c) 3,  , , 5
 7 
(d) 3, 5
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
   
In the given set,  , 3 and 2  5 are irrational so, the required subset is  , 3  2  5 
29. The set{x:(x5)(x6)>0}is equal to
(a) {x:5 < x < 6}
(b) x : x  5 x : x  6
(c) x : x  5 x : x  6
(d) x : x  5 x : x  6
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
 x  5 x  6  0
  x  5  0 and  x  6   0  or  x  5   0 and  x  6   0 
 x  5 or x  6
 x : x  5 x : x  6

30. If M and P are two sets and M1 denotes the complement of M, the M(MP)1 equals
(a) M
(b) P
(c) 
(d) (MP)
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
M  (M P)'= M(M' P') = (M M') P' =P`= 

31. Consider the following statements:

(1) (')' x
(2) A (BC)=(AB)(A C)
(3) '= x
Which of the following statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 are correct
(b) 1 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3are correct
(d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
By distributive law, 2 is correct and by definition of complement, ` = x.
Hence, statement 2 and 3 are correct.

32. If R  P, which of the following statements is correct?

(a) RP=PR=P
(b) RP=PR= P
(c) RP =RR=P
(d) P R=PR=P
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
Given R P. Also, R  P = P P R So, R= P. Thus, (b) is true.

33. If A and B are two sets such that n(A)=a, n(B) =b and n(A  B) = c, then n(A  B) is equal
to
(a) a+b
(b) abc
(c) ab+c
(d) a+bc
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)n(A  B)  c  a  b  n  A  B 
 n  A  B  a  b  c

34. Which one of the following is an empty set?

(a) {0}
(b) {xN:3x = 7}
(c) {x  1: 0 < 6x is even)
(d) {xl:(xl)(x4) = 0 and x is odd}
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
Clearly, {x N: 3x = 7}=

35. Which of the following pairs of sets is disjoint?

(a) (4, 3,5) and (4, 3, 5)
(b) {7, 8, 11, 12}and {8, 12, 15}
(c) {4, 6, 8, 10) and (6, 9, 11, 12)
(d) (a, b, c) and (p, q, r)
Answer: (d)
Explanation:
Clearly, no element is common to the sets given in (d).