SAr.

Arthur Cutinho

TOS 2: UNIT 2
FRAMES AND TRUSSES
Objectives
1. To Understand Lattice Constructions,
Frames and Trusses. Frames and
2. To Define Perfect and Imperfect Frames. Trusses
3. To List the Methods of Solving Frames and
Assumptions on which these methods are
based.
4. To Use Method of Joints to Solve a Frame
5. To Use Method of Sections to Solve
Frames
6. To Understand the Effects of Horizontal
Forces on a Frame
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TOS 2: Unit 2: Frames and Trusses

2.1. Basics of Latticed Constructions: The basic intent of the subject is to understand how loads are
transferred from the highest point in the structure to the lowest point that is the foundations. In doing,
we need to analyze the forces acting on each member and the stresses developed due to these forces and
accordingly economically size the member to take the stresses.
We already learnt last semester two basic methods of load transfer
1. Transfer of the horizontal element load to the vertical element which is a long element also forming the
sides of the structure namely Load Bearing Construction
2. Transfer of the horizontal element load through Horizontal Elements like Beams to the vertical elements
i.e. columns namely Framed Construction
2.1.1 Frame: A frame is a structure that consists of arbitrarily oriented beam members, which are connected
rigidly, or by pins at joints. The members support bending as well as axial loads.
1. A Framed Structure is a Network of Beams and
Columns joined up-to form the Skeleton Framework
of the Building

2. The Structural Frame carries the Total Load of the

Building and transfers it to the Foundation

3. Cladding is fixed over the Framework or In Fill

Panels are placed between its members to totally
enclose the space within the Building

However, the Roofs of many structures may not be

solid members but a Lattice of members supporting
Thin and Light Roof Coverings.
2.1.2 Lattice: Latticework is an openwork framework consisting of a criss-crossed pattern of strips of building
material, typically wood or metal. The design is created by crossing the strips to form a grid or weave.
Latticework may be functional – for example, to allow airflow to or through an area; structural, as a truss
in a lattice girder; used to add privacy, as through a lattice screen; or purely decorative; or some
combination.

2.1.3 Truss: A truss is a structure composed of rod members or of any other section arranged to form one or
more triangles. The joints are pinned (do not transmit moments). Truss is a Rigid Framework Composed of
Members Connected at Joints and arranged into a Network of Triangles
We Can Safely Conclude That All Trusses Are Frames but All Frames Are Not Trusses
In this chapter we shall concentrate on Plain Trusses only

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Herein let me try and make you understand how planar trusses may be arranged to provide Roof to a space. I
have only shown two roofing materials
 Mangalore Tiles
 G.I Sheets

1. A Single Truss of members joined together to form one or more triangles only

2. Series of Trusses
arranged one after the other
supported on Columns.

3. Purlins Spanning
between the Trusses to
support load of the Roofing
and transferring the same to
the Truss as point loads

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4. The Entire Roof Assembly

2.2. Frames are Classified as Follows

1. Perfect Frames
2. Imperfect Frames.
2.2.1 Perfect Frames: •Perfect frames are the frames, which can be analyzed to get the internal member
forces and external support reactions by using the three conditions of static equilibrium. Hence, they are
statically determinate structures. •They are divisible into triangles only. • They follow the following
equation
m = 2j -3 where m = number of members, j = number of joints.
Consider the following Trusses used in Factory Buildings, Sheds, and Railway Platforms as also in bridges etc.
for roofs.
1. Howe Truss:
j=8
2j – 3 = 13
m = 13
Hence m = 2j – 3.
This is a Perfect
Frame.

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2. Howe and Pratt

Trusses used in
Bridges:
j=8
2j – 3 = 13
m = 13
Hence m = 2j - 3
These are Perfect
Frames

The above Trusses are also called as N Girders and used as Trusses to support the Foot Bridges across Railway
Lines or Roads. However, they are much longer in span than shown
3. Fink Truss: This Truss is designed so that the length of the members gets reduced especially those in
compression. (Why this is done can only be explained much later on in the course)
J = 15
2j-3 = 2 x 15 – 3 = 27
m = 27
Hence m = 2j - 3
This is a Perfect Frame and used in Roof Trusses over Factory buildings and Sheds

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2.2.2 Imperfect Frames: •Imperfect Frames are those that not divisible into triangles only. •They do not
follow the following equation m = 2j -3 where m = number of members, j = number of joints. These
Frames are Statically Indeterminate.
When m < 2j-3 the frame is called a Deficient Frame
When m > 2j -3 the frame is called a Redundant Frame

2.3. Solution of Frames: Solution of frames would be to compute the Magnitude and Type (whether
compressive or tensile) of each member of the frame.
There are two methods of solving a frame
a. Analytical Methods
 Method of Joints
 Method of Sections
b. Graphical Method
All these methods are based on the following ASSUMPTIONS
1. The Frame is a perfect one
2. The Frame is loaded at the Joints only
3. The Weight of the Frame is negligible compared to the External Loads
4. All the members are connected together at their ends by pin joints which are absolutely frictionless or
All the Joints are Pin Joints and do not transfer Moments.
Due to assumption 2 and 4, any Member is in either Axial Compression or Axial Tension.
Note:
 The truss can have only hinged and roller supports.
 In field, usually joints are constructed as rigid by welding or have at-least two bolts, which actually do
not translate into a pin joint.
2.4. Method of Joints
1. Find Support Reactions
2. Every Joint is a system of Concurrent Forces in equilibrium and hence follows the two equations of Static
Equilibrium and those are ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH=0. As there only two equations we will have to start at a joint
where there are not more than two unknowns. This is the Support Joint in case of a Simple Supported
Frame and the Free End in case of a Cantilever Frame.
3. Draw this Joint. Assume directions of unknown forces towards the joint and show the Vertical Component
and Horizontal Component of each Force along with their Signs
4. Write down the equation for ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH=0 and Solve these simultaneously.
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Fv = F x Sin θ or F x Vertical Distance/Hypotenuse. Fh = F x Cos θ or F x Horizontal Distance/Hypotenuse

5. After Solving if the answer is positive, Assumed Direction is right and if answer is negative assumed
direction is wrong and needs to be reversed. Draw the correct directions in the Master Diagram
6. Make a Table For Force, Magnitude and Type. Direction of a Force towards the Joint means a Compressive
Force and away from the joint means a Tensile Force.

Problem 1 Solve the Following Frame

1. Find Support Reactions

As the Frame is symmetrical VA = VB = (8 + 16 +16 +16 +8)/2 = 32kN
Before going ahead lets calculate the hypotenuse as √(1.5)²+ 2² = 2.5m
Also, understand that a Vertical Force has 0 Horizontal Component
and a Horizontal Force has 0 Vertical Component

2. Start at the joint A. There are only two unknowns AC and AH. Draw the Joint, Assume Unknown directions
towards the joint and draw the components with the signs.

3. Draw the Joint

4. Write ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH=0

4. 1 ΣFV = 0 will give

+32 – 8 – FAC x 1.5/2.5 = 0
(Vertical Component of FAC = F x V.D/Hyp = F ac x 1.5/2.5)
Hence FAC = 24 x 2.5/1.5 = 40kN
4. 2 ΣFH = 0 will give
-FAC x 2/2.5 – FAH = 0

(Horizontal Component of FAC = F x H.D/Hyp = FAC x 2/2.5)

FAH = - 40 x 2/2.5 = -32kN

4. 3 The answer for FAC is +ve so direction assumed is correct, while answer for FAH is negative so, assumed
direction is wrong.

5. Draw the correct directions in the original Frame Sketch

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(Herein I have also shown the Vertical, Horizontal and Hypotenuse distances)

3. Draw the Joint H

4. Let us take Joint H, Draw the directions of unknown forces towards the joint, show vertical and horizontal
components with their signs and solve for ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH = 0

1. ΣFV = 0 will give FCH = 0 ( as there is no other vertical force)

2. ΣFH = 0 will give FHA = - FHG. Hence FHG = - 32kN, as answer
is negative, the direction will have to be reversed.

Note:
 When there are two horizontal members and one vertical member at a joint, the vertical member has
Zero Force. The Vertical Member is a Redundant Member carrying Zero Force and has been put in place
only to shorten the lengths of members. The Horizontal members have same force magnitude but
opposite direction forces
 When there are two vertical members and one horizontal member at a joint, the Horizontal member has
Zero Force. The Horizontal Member is a Redundant Member carrying Zero Force and has been put in
place only to shorten the lengths of members. The Vertical members have same force magnitude but
opposite direction forces.
 At a joint of 3 members, when there are two linear members and one member at right angle to the other
two members, the two linear members have same magnitude forces but opposite directions and the
member at right angles has Zero or Null Force.

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5. Show the member forces and directions in the original frame

3. Let us take Joint C,

4. Draw the directions of unknown forces towards the joint,
show vertical and horizontal components with their signs
and solve for ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH = 0

1. ΣFV = 0 will give

(+40 x 1.5/2.5) -16 – (FCD x 1.5/2.5) + (FGC x 1.5/2.5)= 0
FCD – FGC = 13.33………………I

2. ΣFH = 0
(40 x 2/2.5) – (FCD x 2/2.5) – (FGC x 2/2.5) = 0
FCD + FGC = 40…......II

Solve II and I simultaneously. Adding them will give 2 x Fcd =

53.33kN. Hence Fcd = 26.66kN
FGC = 26.66 – 13.34 = 13.33kN
5. Show the member forces and directions in the original frame

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3. Let us take Joint D

4. Joint D IS better than Joint G, as there are lesser number of Forces). Draw the directions of unknown
forces towards the joint, show vertical and horizontal components with their signs and solve for ΣFV = 0
and ΣFH = 0
1. ΣFV = 0 will give
(+26.66 x 1.5/2.5) -16 +(+26.66 x 1.5/2.5) +FDG = 0
16 - 16 + 16 = -FDG
FDG = - 16kN
As the answer is negative assumed direction is wrong

Final Frame is as shown below

Tabular Results
Member Magnitude Type
AC, BE 40.00kN Compressive
AH, HG, GF,FB 32.00kN Tensile
CD,DE 26.66kN Compressive
CG,GE 13.34kN Compressive
DG 16.00kN Tensile
CH,EF 00.00kN Nil Force

2.5. Method of Sections:

Dis-advantages of Method of Joints:
 One of the major disadvantages of Method of Joints is that joints need to be successively solved starting
from a joint of not more than two unknowns, till all member forces are computed.
 One cannot find an intermediary member force directly
This disadvantage can be resolved by using Method of Sections

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Actual Steps in Using This Method of Sections

1. Find Support Reactions
2. A Section is a line from outside the frame to outside the frame. The Members it cuts across are the
unbalanced members.
3. Take a Section across members whose forces are to be computed. Always try to draw a section across
least possible number of members.
4. We need to consider any one side of the Section either L.H.S or R.H.S. The Cut Members and External
Forces are Unbalanced Forces. Draw the direction of these unknown forces towards the joint. Show
Vertical Component and Horizontal component of all Unbalanced Forces with their Signs
5. For computing Horizontal Unknown Members, use ΣM = 0 about the point of intersection of remaining
two forces.
6. For computing Vertical and Inclined Unknown Members, use ΣV = 0.
7. After Solving if the answer is positive, Assumed Direction is right and if answer is negative assumed
direction is wrong and needs to be reversed. Draw the correct directions in the Master Diagram
8. Make a Table For Force, Magnitude and Type. Direction of a Force towards the Joint means a Compressive
Force and away from the joint means a Tensile Force.

Problem 2 For the frame shown below, calculate the forces in members CD, DG, HG, DH and CH.

1. Find Support Reactions. Since Frame is symmetrical VA = VB = 18 x 3/2 = 27kN

2. Draw Section XX as shown below through CD, DG and HG

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1. I have redrawn the frame as below

showing rhs in the first sketch and lhs in the
second sketch
The Unbalanced Forces are FDC, FDH, FGH and
external forces of 18kN, 18kN and VB=27kN
I have shown their components with the signs
assuming direction of unknowns towards the
joint
 To find inclined member FDH use rhs and ΣV =
0
+FDH x Sin 45 -18 -18 + 27 = 0
FDH = +12.72kN

 To Find Horizontal Member FDG use ΣM = 0 @ D and use rhs.

Remember that FDC, FDH and 18kN (at point G) are passing through point D Hence their moment is Zero.
Clockwise moments are positive and anti-clockwise moments negative
-FGH x 2 + (18 x 2) – (27 x 4) = 0 Hence FGH = -36kN (Direction assumed
is wrong)
 To Find Horizontal Member FCD Use ΣM = 0 @ H and use lhs
(Components and their signs are shown assuming direction of
unknowns towards the joint)
Remember that FDH, FHG, and 18kN (at point H) are passing through
point H and their Moments are Zero
ΣM = 0 @ H
-FDC x 2 + (27 x 2) = 0
Hence FDC = 27kN
2.7.1 To Find Force FCH take section YY as shown below and consider lhs (easier than rhs).
To Find Vertical Members use ΣV = 0.
+ FCH + 27 = 0 Hence FCH = -27kN
(Direction assumed is wrong and needs to be reversed in the Master
Diagram)

 To Find FDG take section zz as shown below and consider lhs

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To find Vertical Member FDG Use ΣV = 0 and consider lhs (Direction of unknown towards the joint)
+27 – 18 -18 -12.72 x Sin 45 – FDG = 0
-9 -9 = FDG. Hence FDG = -18kN (Direction assumed is wrong and needs to be reversed)
Tabular Results
Member Magnitude Type
DH, DF 12.72kN Compressive
GH,GF 36.00kN Tensile
CH,EF 27.00kN Tensile
DC,DE 27.00kN Compressive
DG 18.00kN Tensile
Final Frame is as shown below.

Note:
 It can be easily seen that to calculate an intermediate member of a Truss, it would be easier and faster to use
Method of Sections.
 However, the method is best used for the N Girder kind of truss.

2.6. Effects of Horizontal Forces on a Truss: (The concept is by Er. Sujata Mehta)
1. Consider the following frame with only vertical loads. The effect of the vertical loads will be in creation of
Vertical reactions at A and B.

2. VA = VB = 20kN

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3. Now consider a horizontal force

of 160kN acting at Point D.
ΣFH=0 gives HB = 160kN
ΣFM=0 about A will give
(10 x 2) + (10 x 4) + (10 x 6) + (5 x
8) + (160 x 2) = VB x 8
Hence VB = 60kN

VA + VB = 40kN, Hence VA = 40 –
60 = -20kN.

This means that the Truss have a downward reaction at Point A, which is a Roller Support.
4. Thus the Truss will
over- turn w.r.t A
One of the ways to
prevent this
overturning would be
to interchange the
supports. I.e. Make A
an Hinge Support
and B a Roller
Support

 For Light Weight Roofing and Truss Materials, the Horizontal Effect of the Wind Load is prominent. Hence
Uplift or Over Turning becomes Critical
 Wind Load acting Outward or Upward (Sucking Condition) Over Turns Trusses.
Therefore, in the Design of Trusses, Angle of the Truss, Support Conditions and Geometry become important
criteria.

Problem 3 Find Forces in members EH, EF, EC, ED, CB and CD

I am going to use both methods.

 First by Method of Joints I will resolve Joint H. Joint H is the only joint with Two Unknowns namely EH and
2 2
FH. V.D = 2.5m, H.D = 2.0m, Hyp = √(2 ) +(2.5 ) =3.2m
 ΣV = 0 will give –FEH x 2.5/3.2 – 18 = 0
Hence FEH =- 23.04kN Tension
(Assumed direction is wrong) FEH is in Tension

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 ΣH = 0 will give +FEH x 2/3.2 + FFH = 0

Hence -23.04 x 2/3.2 = -FFH. FFH = 14.4kN Comp.
(The problem has not asked this member to be solved)
You can also observe Joint F and Understand that FEF has to balance 18kN Downward Load and FFD has to
balance FFH. Hence FEF = 18kN Tension
FFD = FFH = 14.4kN Tension
 Let us draw the whole frame again and mark the forces we know. Also I have marked the unknowns at Joint
E, their components assuming directions towards the joint E
 Solve Joint E
 ΣV = 0 will give
-18 – (23.04 x 2.5/3.2) -18 + (FED x 2.5/3.2) = 0.
Hence FED = + 69.12kN (Comp)
 ΣH = 0 will give
+FEC + (23.04 x 2/3.2) + (FED x 2/3.2) = 0
+FEC + 14.4 + 43.2 = 0
Hence FEC = - 57.6kN Tension.

Let us draw all the members we know into the frame now
A little consideration will show that at Joint
C FCD has to be 18kN upwards i.e.
Compressive to match the 18kN load
coming down and FCB has to match FCE
Hence FCB = 57.6kN Tensile and FCD =
18kN Compressive.

 To find member Fbd let us take section zz and consider rhs

The Unbalanced forces on rhs are FCD, FDA, and FDB in addition to all external loads as shown
 ΣV = 0 will give
(-FDB x 2.5/3.2) -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 = 0
Hence HDB = -115.2kN Tensile

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Member Magnitude Type

EH 23.04kN Tensile
HF,FD 14.40kN Compressive
FE 18.00kN Tensile
DC,DE 27.00kN Compressive
DG 18.00kN Tensile

Have you noticed?

 In the First two frames which are simple supported, top members are in compression and bottom
Members are in Tension similar to the action on a Simple Supported Beam
 In the last frame, which is a Cantilever, the top members are in Tension and the Bottom Members are
in Tension similar to the action on a Cantilever Beam.

Suggested Theory Questions: Unit 2

1. Explain in Brief Lattice Construction, Frames and Trusses
2. Define a Perfect Truss giving an Example
3. Define an Imperfect Truss and give the example of a Deficient Frame
4. Define an Imperfect Truss and give the example of a Redundant Frame
5. What are the assumptions in the Solutions of Frames?
6. What are the different Methods of Solving a frame? What are the assumptions in the Solution of Frames?

2.7. A Brief History of Use of Trusses in Buildings: (Not Included in the Syllabus)
2.7.1 Timber Trusses in Antiquity 2500 B.C: Trusses were probably first used in primitive lake dwellings
during the early Bronze Age, about 2500 BC. The first trusses were built of timber.

2.7.2 Greeks; the truss was developed in antiquity, though we do not actually know precisely when the first
ones were built. The ancient Greeks used Triangular Roof but did not use trusses. The roofs of their
temples were constructed as a grid of Wooden Beams and Propped Rafters.

2.7.3 Romans: The Romans, on the other hand, did use trusses. The Picture Below is a carved scene on
Trajan’s Column that shows a multi-span timber arch bridge that appears to use trusses as elements of the
structural system

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2.7.4 Vitruvius’s Treatise ( 80 – 70 B.C.): We also know from Vitruvius’s treatise, De Architectura, that the
Romans used timber trusses spanning upwards of 100 feet or 33m for the Roofs of Temples and Basilicas

2.7.5 Early Christian Churches 324(A.D): Early Christian churches adopted the Roman Basilica form. Many
of these buildings used trussed roofs. This 3-D model shown below is of the original structure of Saint
Paul’s Basilica in Rome, built around 324 A.D.

However, These Trusses are not as sophisticated as they have rectangles in their inner divisions which is not
such a stable shape.
Try to do the following experiment

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2.7.6 Italian Churches @ 1000 ( A.D):They used essentially the same roof system in early medieval
churches like San Giovenale in Orvieto, Italy, with Triangulated Truss Systems in Wood.

2.7.7 Andrea Palladio 1570(A.D.): During the Renaissance, Andrea Palladio included drawings of several
well-detailed triangulated truss bridges, like this one, in his Four Books on Architecture; and he has
reported to have actually constructed one of these bridges, a 100-foot span over the Cimone River

2.7.8 From Empirical Design to Structural Design and From Wood to Iron 1800 A.D.: Wooden Trusses were
had stocky members, their sizes derived empirically. In late 1800 with the advent of Iron Industries, and
structural theories the size of members came down.
An American engineer named Squire Whipple developed the Iron Bowstring Truss and patented it in 1841. It
was almost certainly the first scientifically designed truss in the United States, probably in the world.

In 1847, Whipple’s “A Work on Bridge Building” described, for the first time ever, a fully rational, science-
based process for analysing and designing trusses, and his “method of joints” is part of the syllabus even now.
It is used in engineering today. The method calculates the internal forces in every member of a truss structure
by using a graphical concept called the polygon of forces. The forces acting on a body in equilibrium can be

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drawn as a closed polygon where the angles are the same as the real-world body’s angles, but the length of
each side is proportional to the magnitude of the internal force acting on it.

2.7.9 Roof over London’s Euston Station 1838: The second generation in truss design arrived with the
advent of mass-produced iron in the 19th century. Among the earliest uses of iron trusses was this Roof
over the Passenger Platform at London’s Euston Station, constructed in 1838. The geometry of these
trusses is nearly identical to those wooden roof trusses at San Giovenale and yet there is an incredible
difference in the slenderness of the structural members.

2.7.10 Modern Development: From Here on the Development is very rapid not only in 2D Trusses but also
in Spatial Frames.

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TOS 2 Unit 2 Frames and [Link] Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho