REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

by
[Link]
Professor of Civil Engineering
Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608 002
Tamilnadu, India
spoong86@[Link]
 DEFINITION OF REMOTE SENSING
❖Remote Sensing is an application of photogrammetry
in which imagery is acquired with a sensor, other than
(or in addition to), a conventional camera through
which a scene is recorded, such as by electronic
scanning, using radiations outside the normal visual
range of the film and camera – microwave, thermal
infrared, ultraviolet as well as multispectral. Special
techniques are applied to process and interpret remote
sensing imagery for the purpose of producing
conventional maps, thematic maps, resource surveys
and so on, in the fields of agriculture, archaeology,
forestry, geography, geology and others.
 REMOTE SENSING IS AN APPLICATION
OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY

❖ In which imagery is acquired with a sensor, other than (or in

addition to), a conventional camera through which a scene
is recorded, such as by electronic scanning, using
radiations outside the normal visual range of the film and
camera – microwave, thermal infrared, ultra violet as well
as multi spectral.

❖ Special techniques are applied to process and interpret

Remote Sensing imagery for his purpose of producing
conventional maps, thematic maps, and resource surveys,
and so on in the fields of agriculture, archeology, forestry,
geography, geology and others.
❖ Photogrammetry The art and science of technology of taking
relative measurements on photographs about physical objects
and environment. These measurements are obtained by
Interpretation of photographic images.

❖ In 1839, Aerial photography-Topographic surveying – (1840)

North America by Captain Deville, the surveyor general of
Canada. In 1902, Invention of aeroplane by Wright-Brothers
led to advanced aerial photography.

❖ Photo-Interpretation “The art of examing the photographic

images of objects for the purpose of identifying those objects
and deducing their significance”.
❖Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information
about an object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of
data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area or phenomenon under investigation.
(e.g.) Human sight, smell and Hearing.
Recognization of words – Remote sensing.

❖Remote sensing of earth resources encompasses all

information above or below the Earth, collected from a
distance, such as aerial photographs, satellite images etc..

❖Remote sensing Images, obtained from the orbiting satellites

are capable of providing quantitative as well as qualitative
information about objects.

❖1950 – Started. But in 1960, Launching of – First US

Meteorological satellite TIROS – 1.
 TYPE OF REMOTE SENSING DATA

Aerial Satellite
* Platform used: Aircraft Satellite
*Data products: Black & White &Coloured Black& White, FCC,CCT,CDs

Applications Agriculture Forestry mapping

Forestry, Snowfall Hydrology
Aerial satellite Environmental studies [Link]
RS applications Disaster management River morphology
Oceanography Watershed conservation
Terrain Investigation Flood estimation
LU/LC Geology Investigation
Soil Soil mapping
SW &GW LU/LC mapping
Geology & Geomorphology Corp yield forecast
 ADVANTAGES
1. Satellite images – permanent record, provide useful + in
various wave bands
2. Large area coverage – regional surveys – of large features
3. Repetitive coverage allows monitoring of dynamic themes like
water, agriculture, etc.
4. Easy data acquisition over inaccessible area.
5. Data acquisition @ different scales of resolutions
6. Single RS image – Different purposes of applications
7. Compatible to Computer – for processing
8. Lab analysis – Reducing the field work. (Cost effective)
9. Map revision @ moderate to small scales is economical and
faster
[Link] composites can be produced from 3 individual band
images, which provide better details of the area than a single
band image or aerial photograph.
[Link] – satellite data may be used for 3D- studies.
 DISADVANTAGES
1. Expensive for small areas, particularly for one-time
analysis.
2. Specialized training for analysis of images.
3. Interpretation equipments, for digital Interpretation, is
costly.

With the advent of different type of sensor systems, the

range of data products that are now available for mapping
purposes, besides conventional photographs, has
increased. These products are listed bellow:
1. Space photographs: These include metric & non metric,
black & white, colour & infrared (dia positives & negatives)
mosaics and ortho – photographs.
2. Satellite images: These include LANDSAT MSS
&TM,SPOT HRV,IRS LISS I, LISS II & LISS III, etc. dia
positives & negatives, FCCs, stereo pair, computer
compatible tapes, floppies and CDs
Basic physical principles of
Remote sensing / Wave theory
In physical terms , RS is concerned with the Measurement
and estimation of the variations in electromagnetic (EM)
energy which occur when energy of this type interacts
both with the earth’s atmosphere & with the earth’s
surface.

The terms EM energy refers to all energy which travels in a

periodic harmonic manner at the velocity of light using the
well-known relationship.

λ = c/f
Where λ is the wave length
f is the frequency
c is the velocity of EM energy
 THE EM SPECTRUM
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7(µm)
B G R reflected infrared

10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Visible
Infrared Micro
wave
 EM spectrum – Region of Interest of
Spectral range for Remote Sensing

i) Visible - 0.36-0.79 µm @ 0.5 µm

Reflected IR
ii) Infrared between visible and microwave region
Thermal IR
iii) Microwave – 1mm (10 3 µm) – 1m (106 µm)
 REFLECTED AND EMITTED EM ENERGY
Distinction between Reflected & emitted energy:
During daylight, the radiant energy from a scheme consists of
2 components
i) At wavelength upto about 3 µm, the energy is predominantly–
reflected sunlight
*Human eyes & photographic film are sensitive to
reflected energy with in this wavelength rays
ii) In contrast at longer wavelength (i.e) greater than about 3 µm
the dominant type of radiation energy is that which is emitted
by a body rather than that which is reflected.
(e.g.) Infrared region of the EMS
With in this region it is apparent that as the wavelength increase
the emitted infrared component becomes progressively more
sight perfected infrared – can not be sensed by photographic
emulsion
 STEFAN – BOLTZMANN LAW
It is possible to quantify the amount of energy a body is emitted
by means of …………… Law which states that

W = CεT4
Where
W- is the Radiant emittance, watts m-2
ε - is the emissitivity of the object
C - is the S – B constant equal to 5.7x10-8 watts m-2 k-4
T - is the absolute temperature of the object (k)
Three significant conclusions may be drawn from this law:
I)The energy emitted from a body increases very
rapidly with an increase in temperature.
II) Emissivity (ε) of an object is defined as a factor
which describes how efficiently an object radiates
energy in comparison to a “black body” which has
an emissivity value of one.
Emissivity is defined as
Radiant emittance from an object @ a temperature
E (λ) =
Radiant emittance from a black body @ the same temp.

Where E (λ) represents the emissivity @ a particular Wave length value

Range of emissivity between 0 and 1
 Table 1
Emissivity of a selection of materials
(Within the 8-14 µm W.L band)
Material Ave. emissivity
Clay soil - 0.98
Water - 0.97
Sandy soil - 0.88
Gravel - 0.88
Buffled stainless steel - 0.16
III It should be possible to infer indirectly the temperature
of the body knowing the emissivity of the object.

This represents the basis of the technique of thermal

infrared RS (Range: 3-14 µm)
 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

λmax = 2897
This law states that
T
Where λ max = Wave length of max spectral emittance &
T = temperature (ok)

# To quantity the wave length at which the maximum

spectral emittance will occur

#This law explains the Wave length shift or displacement,

which occurs in the values associated with the energy
emitted from the sun (0.5 µm) and from the earth
surface (9.7 µm)
 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION ENERGY
When EM energy is incident on the Earth’s features , three
fundamental energy interactions with the features are possible

EI (λ) Incident energy ER (λ) Reflected energy

ET (λ) Transmitted energy

EA (λ) Absorbed energy EA (λ) Absorbed energy

Fig-Basic Interaction between EM energy & Earth surface

features Applying the Principle of conservation of energy
EI(λ) = ER(λ)+EA(λ)+ET(λ)
The proportions of ER(λ), EA(λ) &ET (λ) will vary for
different earth features depending on their physical &
chemical characteristics conditions.

RS may be defined as a method, hereby information about

the physical & chemical characteristics of objects can be
obtained with the help of a sensor which records reflected
EM energy from these objects.

An ideal Remote Sensing system may have the following

components
[Link] of EM energy
[Link] (eg) which interact with this energy(atmosphere)
[Link] object
[Link] to detect & record the changes in EM energy.
 ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS
There are certain region of the EMS which can
penetrate through without any significant loss of radiation.
Such regions are called the Atmospheric Windows as
shown in Fig.
Fig. explains this concept in relative to the visible and
infrared parts of the spectrum. In several regions, for
example the visible the atmosphere is highly transmittance
and consequently is almost totally free from the effects of
absorption.
Regions with a high atmosphere transmittance are
generally referred to as atmospheric windows.
It is important that RS Systems should operate within
those portions of the EM spectrum which coincide with
these atmospheric windows.
e.g.. Thermal Infra Red region: Wavelength region
3-14 µm, two Atmospheric windows exit.
1st is from 3-5.5 µm; II is from 8-14 µm
 RADIATION & THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmospheric influence EM radiations in two respect

Scattering Absorption

This is caused primarily by Absorption of EM radiation

the presence of molecules occurs primarily the
of gas + dust + smoke attenuating nature of
particles in the atmosphere molecules of ozone, Co2
and water vapour in
atmosphere. Because these
gases absorb EM radiation
in specific wave length
bands, they govern which
regions of spectrum can be
sensed .
 TYPES OF SCATTERING

Rayleigh scattering Mie scattering (lower Non selective scattering

occurs in upper atmosphere) mainly a when the particles of
atmosphere, caused product of the diameter greater than
predominantly by the interaction of dust and that of radiation
interaction of gas smoke particles with wavelength.
molecules which have the EM signal eg. Scattering by water
diameters much less droplets ( dia ≈ 50 µm)
than the radiation λ. as they interact with
This is the main radiation within the
reason for the presents visible spectrum λ ≈ 0.5
of haze on RS µm
imaginary
Spectral signature:

•This ability to spectrally define a feature or surface is often

referred to as defining the “Spectral signature” of the
feature.
•This term implies that features are uniquely and absolutely
defined by measuring this parameter.
• Quantitative measurement of the properties of an object at
one or several wavelengths
• Black body Radiation A black body is hypothetical ideal
radiation that absorbs and reemits all energy incident on it.
A black body transforms heat energy into radiant energy at
the maximum possible rate is termed as black body
radiation. Eg. If the sun is a perfect emitter it would be an
ideal black body.
Planck’s Law/ Partical theory: It explains the
photo-electric effect. Planck’s Law defines the
spectral existance of a black body (Henderson,
1970)
 Spectral reflectance patterns /characteristic
reflectance of earth objects with EM spectrum
This can be quantified by measuring the proportion of energy
reflected by the feature
◼ Certain surfaces (Grass) have considerably different

reflectance characteristics in the visible & I/R regions of the

spectrum. In contrast (Asphalt) has a relatively stable, low
reflectance in both regions.
◼ Most appropriate regions of the spectrum for differentiating
between the surfaces is the infrared. A clean hierarchy of
reflectance exists from grass with a high reflectance through
concrete sandy loam soil to asphalt & water which have a
relatively low reflectance. In contrast in the blue/green
region of the visible spectrum (λ ~ 0.5µm) the
discrimination between asphalt & sandy loam soil surfaces
is very poor
◼ This may indicate for (eg) that difficulty may arise in the
interpretation of these surfaces from conventional aerial
photography
◼ The graph again illustrates the very low reflectance of
water surfaces in the I/R of the spectrum.
EM Radiation & the earth surface
◼ Specular & diffuse reflection & its relations to surface
roughness.
◼ Some features may appear very different . when it is
examined by sensors which are able to record reflectance or
emittance outside the visible spectrum.
◼ For example, water surfaces appear black when imaged on
to a photographic emulsion sensitive to reflected I/R
radiation. Reason: Total absorption of I/R radiation by
water. In contrast , viewing the same water surface with a
photographic emulsion sensitive to the visible region of the
spectrum may provide details about submerged features
which may not have been sensed.
◼ Reflective properties of the terrain is the function of surface
roughness.
 Specular and Diffused Reflection of earth’s
objects
◼ The reflective properties of the terrain can be classified as
being either Specular or Diffused.
◼ Reflective properties is a function of the surface roughness.

◼ When the surface is relatively smooth, specular reflection

occurs.
◼ When the surface is rough, the reflection is more diffused

as shown in figure.
Multispectral scanners (MSS)
 Figure 2. Geographic grid and
Figure 1. The Geographical Grid of the world
coordinate systems of the globe

Figure 3. Cylindrical projection Figure 4. Azimuthal Projection

 Figure 5. Conic Projection Figure 6. Effect of Map scale on earth features

Figure 7. A Portable GPS Receiver

 Figure 8. Conceptual models and Figure 9. The overlay
representation of spatial phenomena concept of the real world

Figure 11. Major hardware

Figure 10. Various sub-systems of a GIS components of a GIS
 Figure 12. Major software components of a GIS Figure 13. Sources of Input data

Figure 15. Fundamental geographical

Figure 14. Output and presentation of data primitives of points, lines and polygons
 Figure 16. Representation of point, Figure [Link] data
line and aerial data in raster and rector form structures for simple polygons

Figure 19. Simple polygon structure with

Figure 18. Flat bed optical scanner topological errors
 (a) (b)
Figure 20. Quadtree structure of the simple region

4C 1A3f19

4C 1A3f15

4C 1A3f16

4C 1A3f17

4C 1A3f14
4C 1A3f11

4C 1A3f13

4C 1A3f10 4C 1A3f8
4C 1A3f12 4C 1A3f2 4C 1A3f1

R u n of f P o te n ta i l. s h p
4C 1A3f9
4C 1A3f3
4C 1A3f6
Lo w
4C 1A3f4

4C 1A3f7
M od e r ate
4C 1A3f5
M o d e r a t e ly

Figure 22. Mini watershed wise

Figure 21. Digital elevation models
runoff potential map
 N

4C1A3f19
4C1A3f18
4C1A3f15

4C1A3f17
4C1A3f16
4C1A3f14
4C1A3f11
4C1A3f13
4C1A3f10 4C1A3f8
4C1A3f12 4C1A3f2 4C1A3f1
4C1A3f9 4C1A3f3
4C1A3f6 4C1A3f4
4C1A3f7 Mini Watershed Boundary
4C1A3f5 Soil Irrigability
B
C
Hill Soil
Reserve Forest
Figure 23. Mini watershed wise
groundwater potential map Figure 24. Land capability classification map
N

4C1A3f19
4C1A3f18 4C1A3f15

4C1A3f17
4C1A3f16
4C1A3f14
4C1A3f11
4C1A3f13
4C1A3f10 4C1A3f8
4C1A3f12 4C1A3f2 4C1A3f1
4C1A3f9 4C1A3f3
4C1A3f6 4C1A3f4 Mini Watershed Boundary
4C1A3f7 Land Capability
4C1A3f5 Hill Soil
II s
III s
IV es
Figure 25. Soil irrigability classification map Reserve Forest
Figure 26. Typical Thematic Maps

Figure 27. Typical derived Maps