Chapter 13

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

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 © Getty Images/Flicker RF
In this photograph, a branch of the Okavango River
meanders through the Okavango Delta, Botswana.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Understand how flow in open channels differs from

pressurized flow in pipes
• Learn the different flow regimes in open channels and
their characteristics
• Predict if hydraulic jumps are to occur during flow, and
calculate the fraction of energy dissipated during
hydraulic jumps
• Understand how flow rates in open channels are
measured using sluice gates and weirs

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 13–1 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN-CHANNE FLOWS
• Open-channel flow: Refers to the flow of liquids in channels open to the
atmosphere or in partially filled conduits and is characterized by the presence of
a liquid–gas interface called the free surface.
– Examples:
• Most natural flows encountered in practice, such as the flow of water in creeks, rivers, and
floods, as well as the draining of rainwater off highways, parking lots, and roofs are open-
channel flows.
• Human-made open-channel flow systems include irrigation systems, sewer lines, drainage
ditches, and gutters, and the design of such systems is an important application area of
engineering.

• In an open channel, the flow velocity is zero at the side and bottom surfaces
because of the no-slip condition, and maximum at the midplane for symmetric
geometries, typically somewhat below the free surface.

Typical constant axial velocity

contours in an open channel of
trapezoidal cross section; values
are relative to the average velocity.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 (a) © Doug Sherman/Geofile RF; (b) © Corbis RF

Natural and human-made

open-channel flows are
characterized by a free
surface open to the
atmosphere.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 • The velocity distribution (and thus flow) in open channels is, in general, three-
dimensional. Since the average velocity varies only with streamwise distance x,
V is a one-dimensional variable.
• We consider flows with one-dimensional average velocity.
• Despite its simplicity, the one-dimensional equations provide remarkably
accurate results and are commonly used in practice.
• The no-slip condition on the channel walls gives rise to velocity gradients, and
wall shear stress develops along the wetted surfaces.
• The wall shear stress varies along the wetted perimeter at a given cross section
and offers resistance to flow.
• The magnitude of this resistance depends on the viscosity of the fluid as well as
the velocity gradients at the wall surface, which in turn depend on wall
roughness.
• Open-channel flows are also classified as being steady or unsteady. The flow is
said to be steady if the flow depth does not vary with time at any given location
along the channel. Otherwise, the flow is unsteady.
• In this chapter we deal with steady flow only.

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 Uniform and Varied Flows
• Uniform flow: If the flow depth (and thus the average velocity) remains
constant.
• Nonuniform or Varied flow: The flow depth varies with distance in the flow
direction.
• Uniform flow conditions are commonly encountered in practice in long
straight sections of channels with constant slope, constant roughness, and
constant cross section.
• The flow depth in uniform flow is called the normal depth yn, which is an
important characteristic parameter for open-channel flows.

For uniform flow in an open channel, the flow

depth y and the average flow velocity V
remain constant.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 • The presence of an obstruction in the channel, such as a gate or a change in
slope or cross section, causes the flow depth to vary (varied or nonuniform
flow).
• Such varied flows are common in both natural and human-made open channels
such as rivers, irrigation systems, and sewer lines.
• Rapidly varied flow (RVF): If the flow depth changes markedly over a relatively
short distance in the flow direction (such as the flow of water past a partially
open gate or over a falls), and
• Gradually varied flow (GVF): If the flow depth changes gradually over a long
distance along the channel.
• A gradually varied flow region typically occurs between rapidly varied and
uniform flow regions.

Uniform flow (UF), gradually varied

flow (GVF), and rapidly varied flow
(RVF) in an open channel.

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 Laminar and Turbulent
Flows in Channels
• Like pipe flow, open-channel flow can be
laminar, transitional, or turbulent,
depending on the value of the Reynolds
number. 𝜌𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
Re = =
𝜇 𝜈

V is the average liquid velocity

 is the kinematic viscosity
Rh is the hydraulic radius

𝐴
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠: 𝑅 = m
𝑝

4𝐴
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟: 𝐷 = = 4𝑅
𝑝

Laminar for Re  500, Turbulent for Re  2500,

The relationship between the
Transitional for 500  Re  2500 hydraulic radius and
Laminar flow is encountered when a thin layer hydraulic diameter is not
of water flows at a low velocity. what you might expect.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Reynolds number associated with water flow in open channels is
typically above 50,000, and thus the flow is almost always turbulent.

• The wetted perimeter includes the sides and the bottom of the
channel in contact with the liquid—it does not include the free
surface and the parts of the sides exposed to air.
• For example, the wetted perimeter and the cross-sectional flow area
for a rectangular channel of height h and width b containing water of
depth y are p = b + 2y and Ac = yb, respectively. Then,

𝐴 𝑦𝑏 𝑦
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙: 𝑅 = = =
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦 1 + 2𝑦/𝑏

𝐴 𝑦𝑏 𝑦𝑏
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑦: 𝑅 = = ≅ ≅𝑦
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑏

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 Hydraulic radius relations
for various open-channel
geometries.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 13–2 ■ FROUDE NUMBER AND WAVE SPEED
Open-channel flow is also classified as subcritical, critical, or supercritical,
depending on the value of the dimensionless Froude number:
𝑉
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: Fr = Lc is taken to be the flow depth y for wide rectangular channels
𝑔𝐿

𝐹𝑟 = 𝑉/ 𝑔𝑦

Fr < 1 Subcritical or tranquil flow

Fr = 1 Critical flow
Fr > 1 Supercritical or rapid flow

1
𝑉 𝜌𝐴 2 2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴 Inertia force
Fr = = ∝
𝑔𝐿 𝜌𝐴 𝑚𝑔 Gravity force

Analogy between the Mach

number for compressible flow
and the Froude number for
open-channel flow.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 • Subcritical or tranquil flow: At low flow velocities (Fr < 1), a small disturbance
travels upstream (with a velocity c0 - V relative to a stationary observer) and affects
the upstream conditions.
• Supercritical or rapid flow: At high flow velocities (Fr > 1), a small disturbance
cannot travel upstream and thus the upstream conditions cannot be influenced by
the downstream conditions. The flow in this case is controlled by the upstream
conditions.
∀̇
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙): 𝑦 =
𝑔𝐴
/
∀̇
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟): 𝑦 =
𝑔𝑏

• A liquid can accelerate from subcritical to

supercritical flow. It can also decelerate from
supercritical to subcritical flow, and it can do so by
undergoing a shock.
• The shock in this case is called a hydraulic jump,
which corresponds to a normal shock in
compressible flow.
Definitions of subcritical flow
and supercritical flow in
terms of critical depth.
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 Speed of Surface Waves
An important parameter in the study of open-channel flow is the wave speed c0,
which is the speed at which a surface disturbance travels through a liquid.

The generation
and analysis of a
wave in an open
channel.

𝛿𝑦
𝜌𝑐 𝑦𝑏 = 𝜌 𝑐 − 𝛿𝑉 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 𝑏 → 𝛿𝑉 = 𝑐
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦
𝜌𝑔 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 𝑏 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑏
𝑃 , avg 𝐴 − 𝑃 , avg 𝐴 = 𝑚̇ −𝑉 − 𝑚̇ −𝑉 − = 𝜌𝑐 𝑦𝑏(−𝑐 + 𝛿𝑉) − 𝜌𝑐 𝑦𝑏(−𝑐 )
2 2

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
𝑔 1+ 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑐 𝛿𝑉 𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦 1 + 1+
2𝑦 𝑦 2𝑦

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠: 𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦

©McGraw-Hill Education.
small amplitude Wave Speed 1/5

 Consider a single elementary wave of small height, by δy, is produced on the surface
of a channel by suddenly moving the initially stationary end wall with speed δV.

15
small amplitude Wave Speed 2/5

 The water in the channel was stationary at the initial time, t=0.
 A stationary observer will observe a single wave move down the channel with a
wave speed c, with no fluid motion ahead of the wave and a fluid velocity of δV
behind the wave.
 The motion is unsteady.
 For an observer moving along the channel with speed c, the flow will appear steady.
 To this observer, the fluid velocity will be V = −ci⃑ on the observer’s right
and V = (−c + 𝛿V)ı⃑ to the left of the observer.

Momentum Equation + Continuity Equation 

16
small amplitude Wave Speed 3/5

 With the assumption of uniform one-dimensional flow, the continuity equation

becomes
−𝑐𝑦𝑏 = (−𝑐 + 𝛿𝑉)(𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦)𝑏

(𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦)𝛿𝑉 𝛿𝑉
⇒𝑐= =𝑦 (1)
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑦 << 𝑦

 Similarly, the momentum equation

1 1
F = 𝛾𝑦 𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑏 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑦 𝐴 = 𝛾(𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) 𝑏
2 2
1 1
F − 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑏 − 𝛾(𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏𝑐𝑦 (𝑐 − 𝛿𝑉) − 𝑐
2 2

17
small amplitude Wave Speed 4/5

(𝛿𝑦) << 𝑦𝛿𝑦

𝛿𝑉 𝑔
⇒ = (2)
𝛿𝑦 𝑐

(1)+(2) 𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦 (3)

Energy Equation + Continuity Equation 

18
small amplitude Wave Speed 5/5

 The single wave on the surface is seen by an observer moving with the wave speed,
c.
 Since the pressure is constant at any point on the free surface, the Bernoulli equation
for this frictionless flow is
𝑉 𝑉𝛿𝑉
+ 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 tan 𝑡 → + 𝛿𝑦 = 0
2𝑔 𝑔
The continuity equation
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 tan 𝑡 → 𝑦𝛿𝑉 + 𝑉𝛿𝑦 = 0

Combining these two equations and using the fact V = c

𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦

19
finite-sized solitary Wave Speed

 More advanced analysis and experiments show that the wave speed for finite-sized
solitary wave

/ /
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦 1 + 𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦 1 + > 𝑔𝑦
𝑦 𝑦

The larger the amplitude, the faster the wave travel.

20
Continuous sinusoidal shape Wave Speed 1/2

 A more general description of wave motion can be obtained by considering

continuous (not solitary) wave of sinusoidal shape.
By combining waves of various wavelengths, λ, and amplitudes, δy.
The wave speed varies with both the wavelength and fluid depth as

/
𝑔𝜆 2𝜋𝑦
𝑐 =̇ tanh (4)
2𝜋 𝜆

21
Continuous sinusoidal shape Wave Speed 2/2

/
𝑔𝜆 2𝜋𝑦
𝑐 =̇ tanh
2𝜋 𝜆

𝑦 2𝜋𝑦
→ ∞ ⇒ tanh =1
𝜆 𝜆
𝑔𝜆
⇒𝑐=
2𝜋 Deep layer

𝑦 2𝜋𝑦 2𝜋𝑦
→ 0 ⇒ tanh =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦
Shallow layer
Wave speed as a function of wavelength.

22
 A hydraulic jump can
be observed on a
dinner plate when (a)
it is right-sideup, but
not when (b) it is
upside down.

© Girish Kumar Rajan

(a) Flow through a sluice

gate. (b) A hydraulic jump
observed in a water Photo by Po-Ya Abel Chuang. Used by permission.
channel.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 13–3 ■ SPECIFIC ENERGY
𝑃 𝑉 𝑉
𝐻=𝑧+ + =𝑧+𝑦+
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

z is the elevation head

P/g = y is the gage pressure head
V2/2g is the velocity or dynamic head

Specific energy Es: The sum of the

pressure and dynamic heads of a
liquid in an open channel.

𝑉 ∀̇
𝐸 =𝑦+ 𝑉=
2𝑔 𝑦𝑏

∀̇
The specific energy Es of a liquid 𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔𝑏 𝑦
in an open channel is the total
mechanical energy (expressed
as a head) relative to the bottom
of the channel.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 ∀̇
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔𝑏 𝑦

• The specific energy reaches a

minimum value Es, min at
someintermediate point, called
the critical point, characterized
by the critical depth yc and
critical velocity Vc.
• The minimum specific energy is
also called the critical energy.

Variation of specific energy Es with depth y

for a specified flow rate.

A sluice gate illustrates alternate

depths—the deep liquid upstream of
the sluice gate and the shallow
liquid downstream of the sluice gate.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 /
𝑑𝐸 𝑑 ∀̇ ∀̇ ∀̇
= 𝑦+ =1− =0 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑔𝑏 𝑦 𝑔𝑏 𝑦 𝑔𝑏

∀̇= 𝑦 𝑏𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑔𝑦
The point of minimum specific energy is indeed the
𝑉 𝑉 critical point, and the flow becomes critical when
Fr = = =1 the specific energy reaches its minimum value.
𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑦

It follows that the flow is subcritical at lower flow velocities and thus higher flow
depths (the upper arm of the curve in Fig. 13–13), supercritical at higher velocities
and thus lower flow depths (the lower arm of the curve), and critical at the critical
point (the point of minimum specific energy).

𝑉 𝑔𝑦 3
Specific energy can be expressed in 𝐸 , min = 𝑦 + = 𝑦 + = 𝑦
2𝑔 2𝑔 2
terms of the critical depth alone as

In uniform flow, the flow depth and the flow velocity, and thus the specific
energy, remain constant since Es = y + V2/2g. The head loss is made up by the
decline in elevation (the channel is sloped downward in the flow direction). In
nonuniform flow, however, the specific energy may increase or decrease,
depending on the slope of the channel and the frictional losses.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Energy Considerations

z1  z 2 The slope of the channel bottom or bottom

S0 
 slope is constant over the segment

Very small for most open-channel flows.

x and y are taken as the

distance along the
channel bottom and the
depth normal to the
bottom.
27
Specific Energy 1/4

 Define specific energy, E

𝑉
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔 (8)

𝐸 = 𝐸 + (𝑆 − 𝑆 )ℓ (9)

(9) 𝐸 +𝑧 =𝐸 +𝑧 The sum of the specific energy and

the elevation of the channel bottom
Head losses are negligible, Sf = 0 remains constant.
−𝑆 ℓ = 𝑧 − 𝑧 This a statement of the Bernoulli
equation.

28
Specific Energy 2/4

 If the cross-sectional shape is a rectangular of width b

𝑞
𝐸 =𝑦+ (10)
2𝑔𝑦
Where q is the flowrate per unit width, q=Q/b=Vyb/b=Vy
 For a given channel
b= constant
q = constant
E = E (y)  Specific energy diagram

29
Specific Energy 3/4

𝑞
𝐸 =𝑦+ (10)
2𝑔𝑦

For a given q and E, equation (10) is a

cubic equation with three solutions ,
ysup, ysub, and yneg.
If E >Emin, two solutions are positive
and yneg is negative (has no physical
meaning and can be ignored).
These two depths are term alternative
depths.

30
Specific Energy 4/4

Approach y=E y sup  y sub

Very deep and very slowly
Vsup  Vsub
E > Emin
Two possible depths of flow,
one subcritical and the other
supercritical

Approach y=0
Very shallow and
very high speed

31
Determine Emin

 To determine the value of Emin

/
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑞 𝑞
=0⇒ = 1− =0⇒𝑦 = (11)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝑦 𝑔

3𝑦 𝑞
Sub. (11) into (10) 𝐸= =⇒ 𝑉 = = 𝑔𝑦 = 𝐹𝑟 = 1
2 𝑦

1. The critical conditions (Fr=1) occur at the location of Emin.

2. Flows for the upper part of the specific energy diagram are
subcritical (Fr<1)
3. Flows for the lower part of the specific energy diagram are
supercritical (Fr>1)

32
Example 10.2 Specific Energy diagram –
Quantitative
 Water flows up a 0.5-ft-tall ramp in a constant width rectangular
channel at a rate of q = 5.75 ft2/s as shown in Fig. E10.2(a). (For
now disregard the “bump”) If the upstream depth is 2.3 ft,
determine the elevation of the water surface downstream of the
ramp, y2 + z2. Neglect viscous effects.

33
Example 10.2 Solution1/4

With S0  =z1-z2 and hL=0, conservation of energy requires that

p1 V12 p 2 V22
  z1    z2
 2g  2g
V22
 1.90  y 2  (10.2-1)
64.4
3 2
The continuity equation y2  1.90y 2  0.513  0
y 2 V2  y1V1 y 2  1.72ft 0.638ft
 y 2 V2  5.75ft 2 / s (10.2-2)
y 2  0.466ft

34
Example 10.2 Solution2/4

The corresponding elevations of the free surface are either

y 2  z 2  1.72ft  0.50ft  2.22ft
y 2  z 2  0.638ft  0.50ft  1.14ft

Which of these flows is to be expected?

This can be answered by use of the specific energy diagram
obtained from Eq.(10), which for this problem is
0.513
Ey
y2
The diagram is shown in Fig.E10.2(b).

35
Example 10.2 Solution3/4

36
Example 10.2 Solution4/4

The upstream condition corresponds to subcritical flow; the

downstream condition is either subcritical or supercritical,
corresponding to points 2 or 2’.
Note that since E1=E2+(z2-z1)=E2+0.5 ft, it follows that the
downstream conditions are located to 0.5 ft to the left of the
upstream conditions on the diagram.

….. The surface elevation is

y 2  z 2  1.72ft  0.50ft  2.22ft

37
Example 10.2 Solution4/4 + 𝞪

• With a constant-width channel, the value of q remains the same

for any location along the channel.
• That is, all points for the flow from (1) to (2) or (2′ ) must
lie along the q= 5.75 ft2/s curve shown.
• Any deviation from this curve would imply either a
change in q or a relaxation of the one-dimensional flow
assumption.
• To stay on the curve and go from (1) around the critical
point (point c) to point (2′ ) would require a reduction in
specific energy to Emin.

38
Example 10.2 Solution4/4 + 𝞪
• As is seen from Fig. E10.2a, this would require a specified
elevation (bump) in the channel bottom so that critical
conditions would occur above this bump.
• The height of this bump can be obtained from the energy
equation (Eq. 10.9) written between points (1) and (c) with Sf= 0
(no viscous effects) and S0ℓ = z1− zc.
• That is, E1 = Emin− z1 + zc.
• In particular, since E1 = y1 + 0.513/y12 = 2.40 ft and Emin= 3yc/2
= 3(q2/g)1/3 / 2= 1.51 ft, the top of this bump would need to be
zc− z1 = E1− Emin = 2.40 ft− 1.51 ft = 0.89 ft above the channel
bottom at section (1).
• The flow could then accelerate to supercritical conditions (Fr2′ >
1) as is shown by the free surface represented by the dashed line
in Fig. E10.2a.
39
 13–4 ■ CONSERVATION OF MASS
AND ENERGY EQUATIONS
∀̇= 𝐴 𝑉 = constant 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑉

𝑃 𝑉 𝜌𝑔𝑎 𝑉 𝑉
𝐻 =𝑧 + + =𝑧+ 𝑦−𝑎 + + =𝑧+𝑦+
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉
𝐻 =𝑧+𝑦+
2𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑧 +𝑦 + =𝑧 +𝑦 + +ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐿 𝑉 𝐿 𝑉
ℎ =𝑓 =𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔 𝑅 8𝑔
𝑧 −𝑧 𝑧 −𝑧
𝑆 = tan 𝛼 = ≅ The slope of the
𝑥 −𝑥 𝐿
bottom of the channel

If the channel bottom is straight (the

bottom slope is constant):
The total energy of a liquid
flowing in an open channel. 𝑉 𝑉
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑦 + +𝑆 𝐿 =𝑦 + +ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 • In the design of open-channel systems, the bottom slope is selected such that
it provides adequate elevation drop to overcome the frictional head loss and
thus to maintain flow at the desired rate.
• Therefore, there is a close connection between the head loss and the bottom
slope, and it makes sense to express the head loss as a slope (or the tangent
of an angle). This is done by defining a friction slope as
ℎ Note that the friction slope
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒: 𝑆 =
𝐿 is equal to the bottom slope
when the head loss is equal
𝑉 𝑉 to the elevation drop. That
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑦 + =𝑦 + + 𝑆 −𝑆 𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔 is, Sf = S0 when hL = z1 - z2.

• The energy line z + y + V2/2g (total mechanical

energy of the liquid expressed as a head) above
the horizontal reference datum.
• The energy line is typically sloped down like the
channel itself as a result of frictional losses, the
(?)
vertical drop being equal to the head loss hL and
thus the slope being the same as the friction
slope.

The total energy of a liquid at two sections of

an open channel.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Energy Considerations 1/3

𝑧 −𝑧 The slope of the channel bottom or bottom

S =
ℓ slope is constant over the segment

Very small for most open-channel flows.

x and y are taken as the

distance along the
channel bottom and the
depth normal to the
bottom.

42
Energy Considerations 2/3

 With the assumption of a uniform velocity profile across any section of the channel,
the one-dimensional energy equation become

𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
+ +𝑧 = + +𝑧 +ℎ (5)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

hL is the head loss due to viscous effects between sections (1) and (2).
𝑉 𝑉
(5) 𝑦 + +𝑆 ℓ=𝑦 + +ℎ (6)
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑧 −𝑧 =𝑆 ℓ
𝑝 /𝛾 = 𝑦 𝑝 /𝛾 = 𝑦

43
Energy Considerations 3/3

𝑉 −𝑉
(6) 𝑦 −𝑦 = + (𝑆 − 𝑆 )ℓ (7)
2𝑔

𝑆 = ℎ /ℓ

𝑉 −𝑉
(7) 𝑦 −𝑦 =
2𝑔

For a horizontal channel bottom (S0 = 0) and negligible head loss (Sf = 0)

44
 13–5 ■ UNIFORM FLOW IN CHANNELS

• Flow in a channel is called

uniform flow if the flow depth (and
thus the average flow velocity
remains constant.
• Uniform flow conditions are
commonly encountered in
practice in long straight runs of
channels with constant slope,
constant cross section, and
constant surface lining.
• The flow depth in uniform flow is
called the normal depth yn, and In uniform flow, the flow depth y, the
the average flow velocity is called average flow velocity V, and the
the uniform-flow velocity V0. bottom slope S0 remain constant, and
the head loss equals the elevation
loss, hL = z1 - z2 = Sf L = S0L.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝐿 𝑉 𝐿 𝑉
ℎ =𝑓 or 𝑆 𝐿=𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔 𝑅 8𝑔

ℎ =𝑆 𝐿 𝐷 = 4𝑅

𝑉 =𝐶 𝑆 𝑅 and ∀̇= 𝐶𝐴 𝑆 𝑅

𝐶= 8𝑔/𝑓 Chezy coefficient

𝑓 = 2.0 log 14.8𝑅 /𝜀

The Chezy coefficient ranges from about

30 m1/2/s for small channels with rough surfaces to
90 m1/2/s for large channels with smooth surfaces.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝑎 / Manning coefficient n: It depends on Mean values of the Manning coefficient n
𝐶= 𝑅 for water flow in open channels*
𝑛 the roughness of the channel surfaces. From Chow (1959).

Manning equations (Gauckler–Manning equations) Wall Material n

A. Artificially lined channels
Glass 0.010
𝑎 / / 𝑎 / / Brass 0.011
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: 𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆 and ∀̇= 𝐴 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 𝑛 Steel, smooth 0.012
Steel, painted 0.014
Steel, riveted 0.015
/ / / Cast iron 0.013
𝑎 =1m /s = 3.2808 ft /s = 1.486 ft /s Concrete, finished 0.012
Concrete, unfinished 0.014
Wood, planed 0.012
Critical Uniform Flow Wood, unplaned
Clay tile
0.013
0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Flow through an open channel becomes critical flow Asphalt 0.016
Corrugated metal 0.022
when the Froude number Fr = 1 and thus the flow Rubble masonry 0.025
speed equals the wave speed 𝑉 = 𝑔𝑦 B. Excavated earth channels
Clean 0.022
Gravelly 0.025
Weedy 0.030
𝑔𝑛 𝑦 Stony, cobbles 0.035
Critical slope (general): 𝑆 = / C. Natural channels
𝑎 𝑅 Clean and straight 0.030
Sluggish with deep pools 0.040
For film flow or flow in a wide rectangular Major rivers
Mountain streams
0.035
0.050
channel with b >> yc, D. Floodplains
Pasture, farmland 0.035
𝑔𝑛 Light brush 0.050
Heavy brush 0.075
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑏 >> 𝑦 : 𝑆 = / Trees 0.150
𝑎 𝑦
* The uncertainty in n can be ±20 percent or more.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Superposition Method for Nonuniform Perimeters

• The surface roughness and thus the Manning coefficient for most natural
and some human-made channels vary along the wetted perimeter and even
along the channel.
• A river, for example, may have a stony bottom for its regular bed but a
surface covered with bushes for its extended floodplain.
• There are several methods for solving such problems, either by
finding an effective Manning coefficient n for the entire channel cross
section, or by considering the channel in subsections and applying
the superposition principle.
• For example, a channel cross section can be divided into N subsections,
each with its own uniform Manning coefficient and flow rate.
• When determining the perimeter of a section, only the wetted portion of the
boundary for that section is considered, and the imaginary boundaries are
ignored.
• The flow rate through the channel is the sum of the flow rates through all the
sections.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
The Chezy & Manning Equation 1/6

Control volume for uniform flow in an open channel.

49
The Chezy & Manning Equation 2/6

 Under the assumption of steady uniform flow, the x component of the momentum
equation

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉 − 𝑉 ) = 0

𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝜏 𝑃ℓ + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0 (15)

where F1 and F2 are the hydrostatic pressure forces across either end of the control
volume.
P is wetted perimeter.

50
The Chezy & Manning Equation 3/6

y1=y2  F1=F2

−𝜏 𝑃ℓ + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0
(15) 𝑊 sin 𝜃 𝐴
𝜏 = 𝑊 = 𝛾𝐴ℓ 𝑅 =
𝑃ℓ 𝑃

𝛾𝐴ℓ𝑆
𝜏 = = 𝛾𝑅 𝑆 (16)
𝑃ℓ
𝑉
Wall shear stress is proportional to the dynamic pressure 𝜏 ∝𝜌
2
𝑉
(Chapter 8) 𝜏 = 𝐾𝜌
2
K is a constant dependent upon the roughness of the pipe

51
The Chezy & Manning Equation 4/6

𝑉
(16) 𝐾𝜌 = 𝑟𝑅 𝑆 𝑉=𝐶 𝑅 𝑆 (17)
2
C is termed the Chezy coefficient Chezy equation

Was developed in 1768 by A. Chezy (1718-1798), a French

engineer who designed a canal for the Paris water supply.
/
(17) 𝑉∝𝑆 Reasonable
/
𝑉∝ 𝑅 𝑉∝𝑅

Manning Equation

52
The Chezy & Manning Equation 5/6

In 1889, R. manning (1816-1897), an Irish engineer, developed the

following somewhat modified equation for open-channel flow to
more accurately describe the Rh dependence:
/ /
𝑅 𝑆
𝑉= (18) Manning equation
𝑛

n is the Manning resistance coefficient.

Its value is dependent on the surface material
of the channel’s wetted perimeter and is
obtained from experiments.
It has the units of s/m1/3 or s./ft1/3

53
The Chezy & Manning Equation 6/6

𝜅 / /
(18) 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 (19) Where κ=1 if SI units are
𝑛
𝜅
used, κ=1.49 if BG units
/ /
𝑄=
𝑛
𝐴𝑅 𝑆 (20) are used.
The best hydraulic cross section is defined as the section of minimum
area for a given flowrate Q, slope, So, and the roughness coefficient, n.
/ / /
𝜅 𝐴 / 𝜅𝐴 / 𝑆 𝑛𝑄 /
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑆 = ⇒𝐴= 𝑃
𝑛 𝑃 𝑛 𝑃 / 𝑘𝑆
/

𝐴 constant
𝑅 =
𝑃
A channel with minimum A is one with a minimum P.

54
Value of the Manning Coefficient, n

55
 13–6 ■ BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS
• For a given channel length, the perimeter of the channel is representative of
the system cost, and it should be kept to a minimum in order to minimize the
size and thus the cost of the system.

• The best hydraulic cross section for an open channel is the one with the
maximum hydraulic radius or, equivalently, the one with the minimum wetted
perimeter for a specified cross-sectional area.

The best hydraulic cross section

for an open channel is a
semicircular one since it has the A rectangular open channel of width
minimum wetted perimeter for a b and flow depth y. For a given
specified cross-sectional area, and cross-sectional area, the highest
thus the minimum flow resistance. flow rate occurs when y = b/2.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Variation of the hydraulic radius Rh and the flow rate ∀̇ with aspect ratio y/b for a
rectangular channel with Ac = 1 m2, S0 = tan 1°, and n = 0.012
Aspect Channel Flow Hydraulic Flow Rate
Ratio Width Depth Perimeter Radius ∀̇ ,
y/b b, m y, m p, m Rh, m m3/s
0.1 3.162 0.316 3.795 0.264 4.53
0.2 2.236 0.447 3.130 0.319 5.14
0.3 1.826 0.548 2.921 0.342 5.39
0.4 1.581 0.632 2.846 0.351 5.48
0.5 1.414 0.707 2.828 0.354 5.50
0.6 1.291 0.775 2.840 0.352 5.49
0.7 1.195 0.837 2.869 0.349 5.45
0.8 1.118 0.894 2.907 0.344 5.41
0.9 1.054 0.949 2.951 0.339 5.35
1.0 1.000 1.000 3.000 0.333 5.29
1.5 0.816 1.225 3.266 0.306 5.00
2.0 0.707 1.414 3.536 0.283 4.74
3.0 0.577 1.732 4.041 0.247 4.34
4.0 0.500 2.000 4.500 0.222 4.04
5.0 0.447 2.236 4.919 0.203 3.81

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The flow rate increases
as the flow aspect ratio
y/b is increased, reaches
a maximum at y/b=0.5,
and then starts to
decrease.
We see the same trend
for the hydraulic radius,
but the opposite trend for
the wetted perimeter p.
These results confirm that
the best cross section for
a given shape is the one
with the maximum
hydraulic radius, or
equivalently, the one with
Variation of the flow rate in a the minimum perimeter.
rectangular channel with aspect ratio
r = y/b for Ac = 1 m2 and S0 = tan 1°.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Rectangular Channels

𝐴 = 𝑦𝑏 and 𝑝 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦

𝐴 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝑏
𝑝= + 2𝑦 =− +2=− +2=− +2
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑏
𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙): 𝑦=
2

Therefore, a rectangular open channel should be designed such that

the liquid height is half the channel width to minimize flow resistance or
to maximize the flow rate for a given cross-sectional area.
This also minimizes the perimeter and thus the construction costs.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Trapezoidal Channels 𝐴 = 𝑏+
𝑦
𝑦 and 𝑝=𝑏+
2𝑦
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃

𝐴 𝑦 2𝑦
𝑝= − +
𝑦 tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃

Parameters for a trapezoidal channel.

𝑑𝑝 𝐴 1 2 𝑏 + 𝑦/tan 𝜃 1 2
=− − + =− − + 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑦 tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃

𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙): 𝑦=
2 1 − cos 𝜃

𝐴 𝑦 𝑏 + 𝑦/tan 𝜃 𝑦 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦cos 𝜃

𝑅 = = =
𝑝 𝑏 + 2𝑦/sin 𝜃 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 2𝑦

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝑦
𝑏sin 𝜃 = 2𝑦 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑅 =
2

𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝜃 = 0 𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒: 𝜃 = 60°

3
𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃/ 2 − 2 cos 𝜃 𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 60°: 𝑦= 𝑏
2

𝑦 𝑏 3/2
𝑠= = =𝑏
sin 60° 3/2 The best hydraulic cross section
for a circular channel of diameter
𝑝 = 3𝑏 D can be shown to be y = D/2.
𝑦 𝑏 3/2 3 3
𝐴 = 𝑏+ 𝑦= 𝑏+ 𝑏 3/2 = 𝑏
tan 𝜃 tan 60° 4

The best cross section for

trapezoidal channels is
half of a hexagon.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 © Pixtal/AGE Fotostock RF
Many man-made water channels are
trapezoidal in shape because of low
construction cost and good performance.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 13–7 ■ GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
Gradually varied flow (GVF): A form of steady nonuniform flow characterized by gradual
variations in flow depth and velocity (small slopes and no abrupt changes) and a free
surface that always remains smooth (no discontinuities or zigzags).
A change in the bottom slope or cross section of a channel or an obstruction in the path of
flow may cause the uniform flow in a channel to become gradually or rapidly varied flow.
𝑑𝐻 𝑑 𝑉 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐻 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑧 +𝑦+ = + + =− = −𝑆 and = −𝑆
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑔 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 −𝑆 = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑦
0 = 𝑏𝑉 + 𝑦𝑏 → =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑉 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 −𝑆 = − = − Fr
𝑑𝑥 𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑆 − 𝑆
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑉𝐹 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: =
𝑑𝑥 1 − Fr

Variation of properties over a differential flow section in an open

channel under conditions of gradually varied flow (GVF).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
Channel Depth Variations 1/3

 Consider gradually varying flows.

 For such flows, dy/dx<<1, and it is reasonable to impose the one-dimensional
velocity assumption.
 At a section the total head
V2
H yz
2g
and the energy equation

H1  H 2  h L
The slop of the energy line
dH dh L dz dH d  V 2  V dV dy dz
  Sf  So   y  z   
dx dx dx dx dx  2g  g dx dx dx


64
Channel Depth Variations 2/3

dh L V dV dy
   S0
dx g dx dx
V dV dy
  Sf  S o (12)
g dx dx

For a given flowrate per unit width, q, in a rectangular channel of

constant width b, we have
q dV q dy V dy
V   
y dx y 2 dx y dx

V dV V 2 dy 2 dy
(12)   F
Frr2 (13)
g dx gy dx dx

65
Channel Depth Variations 3/3

dy Sf  So
Sub. (13) into (12)  (14)
dx (1  Fr2 )

Depends on the local slope of the channel bottom, the

slope of the energy line, and the Froude number.

66
 For specified values of S0 and Sf ,
the term dy/dx may be positive or
negative, depending on whether
the Froude number is less than or
greater than 1.
Therefore, the flow behavior is
opposite in subcritical and
supercritical flows.
For S0 – Sf > 0, the flow depth
increases in the flow direction in
subcritical flow, but it decreases in
supercritical flow.
© Hisham F. Ibrahim/Getty Images RF

A slow-moving river of
approximately constant depth
and cross section, such as the
Chicago River shown here, is an
example of uniform flow with S0
 Sf and dy/dx  0.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y(x)
It is important to be able to predict the flow depth for a specified flow rate and
specified channel geometry.
A plot of flow depth versus downstream distance is the surface profile y(x) of
the flow.
The general characteristics of surface profiles for gradually varied flow depend
on the bottom slope and flow depth relative to the critical and normal depths.

Designation of the letters S, C, M, Designation of the numbers 1, 2, and 3 for liquid

H, and A for liquid surface profiles surface profiles based on the value of the flow
for different types of slopes. depth relative to the normal and critical depths.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Some Representative Surface Profiles
A typical open-channel system involves several sections of different slopes,
with connections called transitions, and thus the overall surface profile of the
flow is a continuous profile made up of the individual profiles described earlier.

Some common surface

profiles encountered in open-
channel flow.
All flows are from left to right.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Some common surface
profiles encountered in
open-channel flow.
All flows are from left to
right.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Numerical Solution of Surface Profile
• The prediction of the surface profile y(x) is an important part of the design of
open-channel systems.
• A good starting point for the determination of the surface profile is the
identification of the points along the channel, called the control points, at
which the flow depth can be calculated from a knowledge of flow rate.

• Once flow depths at control points are available, the surface profile
upstream or downstream is determined usually by numerical integration of
the nonlinear differential equation

𝑑𝑦 𝑆 − 𝑆
=
𝑑𝑥 1 − Fr

• The friction slope Sf is determined from the uniform-flow conditions, and the
Froude number from a relation appropriate for the channel cross section.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 13–8 ■ RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
AND THE HYDRAULIC JUMP
Rapidly varied
flow occurs when
there is a sudden
change in flow,
such as an abrupt
change in cross
section.
• Rapidly varied flows are typically complicated by the fact
that they may involve significant multidimensional and
transient effects, backflows, and flow separation.
• Therefore, rapidly varied flows are usually studied
experimentally or numerically.

© Karl Weatherly/Getty Images RF

• It is still possible to analyze some rapidly varied flows
using the one-dimensional flow approximation with
reasonable accuracy.

When riding the rapids, a kayaker encounters

several features of both gradually varied flow
(GVF) and rapidly varied flow (RVF), with the
latter being more exciting.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝜌𝑦 𝑏𝑉 = 𝜌𝑦 𝑏𝑉 𝑦 𝑉 =𝑦 𝑉

𝑃 , avg 𝐴 − 𝑃 , avg 𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝑉 − 𝑚̇𝑉

2𝑦 𝑉
𝑦 −𝑦 = 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑔

2𝑦 𝑉
𝑦 −𝑦 = 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑔𝑦

𝑦 𝑦
+ − 2Fr = 0
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: = 0.5 −1 + 1 + 8Fr
𝑦

𝑉 𝑉
𝑦 + =𝑦 + +ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔
Schematic and flow depth-specific
energy diagram for a hydraulic jump
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑦 Fr 𝑦
(specific energy decreases). ℎ =𝑦 −𝑦 + =𝑦 −𝑦 + 1−
2𝑔 2 𝑦

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝐸 = 𝑦 + 𝑉 /2𝑔

ℎ ℎ ℎ
Energy dissipation ratio = = =
𝐸 𝑦 + 𝑉 /2𝑔 𝑦 1 + Fr /2

The fraction of energy

dissipation ranges from just a
few percent for weak hydraulic
jumps (Fr1 < 2) to 85 percent
for strong jumps (Fr1 > 9).

The energy dissipation

ratio represents the
fraction of mechanical
energy dissipated
during a hydraulic jump.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
The Hydraulic Jump 1/6

 Under certain conditions it is possible that the fluid depth will change very rapidly
over a short length of the channel without any change in the channel configuration.
Such changes in depth can be approximated as a discontinuity in the free surface
elevation (dy/dx=∞).
This near discontinuity is called a hydraulic jump.
.

78
The Hydraulic Jump 2/6

A simplest type of hydraulic jump in a horizontal, rectangular channel.

Assume that the flow at sections (1) and (2) is nearly uniform, steady,
and one-dimensional.

79
The Hydraulic Jump 3/6

The x component of the momentum equation

𝐹 − 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉 − 𝑉) 1= 𝜌𝑉 𝑦 𝑏(𝑉 − 𝑉 )

𝐹 = 𝑝 𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑏/2
𝑦 𝑦 𝑉𝑦
− = (𝑉 − 𝑉) (21)
𝐹 = 𝑝 𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑏/2 2 2 𝑔 1

The conservation of mass equation 𝑦 𝑏𝑉 = 𝑦 𝑏𝑉 = 𝑄 (22)

𝑉 𝑉
𝑦 + =𝑦 + +ℎ (23)
The energy equation 2𝑔 2𝑔

The head loss is due to the violent turbulent mixing and dissipation.

80
The Hydraulic Jump 4/6

(21)+(22)+(23) Nonlinear equations

One solution is y1=y2, V1=V2, hL=0
Other solutions?
𝑦 𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝑉 𝑦
(21)+(22) − = −𝑉 = (𝑦 − 𝑦 )
2 2 𝑔 𝑦 𝑔𝑦

𝑦 𝑦 𝑉
+ − 2𝐹 =0 𝐹𝑟 =
𝑦 𝑦 𝑔𝑦

𝑦 1 𝑦 1
Solutions 𝑦
=
2
−1 ± 1 + 8𝐹
𝑦
=
2
−1 + 1 + 8𝐹 (24)

81
The Hydraulic Jump 5/6

ℎ 𝑦 𝐹 𝑦
(23) =1− + 1− (25)
𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑦

(24)+(25) Depth ratio and dimensionless head loss across a

hydraulic jump as a function of upstream Froude
number.

82
The Hydraulic Jump 6/6

The head loss is negative if Fr1<1.

Violate the second law of
thermodynamics

Not possible to produce a

hydraulic jump with Fr1<1.

83
 13–9 ■ FLOW CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT
• The flow rate in pipes and ducts is controlled by various kinds of
valves.
• Liquid flow in open channels, however, is not confined, and thus
the flow rate is controlled by partially blocking the channel.
• This is done by either allowing the liquid to flow over the
obstruction or under it.
• Weir: An obstruction that allows the liquid to flow over.
• Underflow gate: An obstruction with an adjustable opening at the
bottom that allows the liquid to flow underneath it.
• Such devices can be used to control the flow rate through the
channel as well as to measure it.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 (a) © Design Pics RF/The Irish Image Collection/Getty Images RF; (b)
Photo courtesy of Bryan Lewis.

A weir is a flow control

device in which the water
flows over the obstruction.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Underflow Gates Common types of underflow gates to control flow rate.

𝑉= 2𝑔𝑦

𝑉=𝐶 2𝑔𝑦 and ∀̇= 𝐶 𝑏𝑎 2𝑔𝑦

Discharge coefficient, Cd

Schematic and flow

depth-specific energy
diagram for flow through
underflow gates.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Data from Henderson, Open Channel Flow, 1st Edition, © 1966. Pearson

Discharge
coefficients for
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ

drowned and
free discharge
from underflow
gates.

Most values of Cd for free outflow from a vertical sluice gate range
between 0.5 and 0.6. The Cd values drop sharply for drowned outflow,
and the flow rate decreases for the same upstream conditions. For a
given value of y1/a, the value of Cd decreases with increasing y2/a.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Overflow Gates
The one-dimensional energy equation for open-channel flow
between upstream section 1 and downstream section 2:
𝐸 = 𝑦 + 𝑉 /2𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
𝑧 +𝑦 + =𝑧 +𝑦 + or 𝐸 = Δ𝑧 + 𝐸
2𝑔 2𝑔 Δ𝑧 = 𝑧 −𝑧

For a channel of constant width b: ∀̇= 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑦𝑉 = constant 𝑉 = V̇/𝐴

∀̇
𝐸 =𝑦+ This diagram is extremely valuable as it
2𝑔𝑏 𝑦
shows the allowable states during flow.
Once the upstream conditions at a flow
section 1 are specified, the state of the
liquid at any section 2 on an Es–y diagram
must fall on a point on the specific energy
curve that passes through point 1.

Variation of specific
energy Es with depth y for
a specified flow rate in a
channel of constant width.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Flow over a Bump with Negligible Friction
𝐸 = 𝐸 − Δ𝑧

𝑦 𝑉 =𝑦 𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑦 /𝑦 𝑉

𝑉 𝑉 𝑦
𝐸 =𝑦 + → 𝐸 − Δ𝑧 = 𝑦 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑦

𝑉
𝑦 − 𝐸 − Δ𝑧 𝑦 + 𝑦 =0
2𝑔

Schematic and flow depth-specific energy

diagram for flow over a bump for subcritical
and supercritical upstream flows.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Broad-Crested Weir
The flow over a sufficiently high obstruction in an open channel is always critical.
Such obstructions placed intentionally in an open channel to measure the flow
rate are called weirs.

/ /
∀̇= 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑦 𝑏 𝑔𝑦 = 𝑏𝑔 𝑦

• Broad-crested weir: A rectangular block of height Pw and length Lw that has

a horizontal crest over which critical flow occurs.
• Weir head, H: The upstream head above the top surface of the weir.

Flow over a broad-crested weir.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 𝑉 𝑉
𝐻+𝑃 + =𝑦 +𝑃 +
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉 = 𝑔𝑦

2 𝑉
𝑦 = 𝐻+
3 2𝑔

/ /
2 𝑉
V̇ideal = 𝑏 𝑔 𝐻+ Flow over a broad-crested weir.
3 2𝑔

/ /
2 𝑉
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟: ̇∀= 𝐶wd, broad 𝑏 𝑔 𝐻+
3 2𝑔

0.65
𝐶wd, broad =
1 + 𝐻/𝑃

/
2 /
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑉 : ̇∀≅ 𝐶wd, broad 𝑏 𝑔 𝐻
3

©McGraw-Hill Education.
Broad-Crested Weir 1/3

 A broad-crested weir is a structure in an open channel that has a horizontal crest

above which the fluid pressure may be considered hydrostatic.

92
Broad-Crested Weir 2/3

 Generally, these weirs are restricted to the range 0.08 < H/Lw < 0.50.
 For long weir block (H/Lw < 0.08), head losses across the weir cannot be neglected.
 For short weir block (H/Lw > 0.50), the streamlines of the flow over the weir are not
horizontal.
Apply the Bernoulli equation

𝑉 𝑉
𝐻+𝑃 + =𝑦 +𝑃 +
2𝑔 2𝑔

If the upstream velocity head is negligible

𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉
𝐻−𝑦 = =
2𝑔 2𝑔

93
Broad-Crested Weir 3/3

Since 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝑔𝑦
𝑦 2
𝐻−𝑦 = 𝑦 = 𝐻
2 3
/
/ 2
The flowrate is 𝑄 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑉 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑉 = 𝑏 𝑔𝑦 =𝑏 𝑔
3
𝐻 /

Again, an empirical broad-crested weir coefficient, Cwb, is used

to account for the real-world effects neglected in the analysis so
that / /
𝑄=𝐶 𝑏 𝑔
2
𝐻 / 1 + 𝐻 ⁄ 𝑃
3 (33) 𝐶 = 1.125 (34)
1 + 𝐻 ⁄𝑃

94
 Sharp-Crested Weirs
• A sharp-crested weir is a vertical plate placed in a channel that forces the
liquid to flow through an opening to measure the flow rate.
• The type of the weir is characterized by the shape of the opening.
• A vertical thin plate with a straight top edge is referred to as rectangular weir
since the cross section of the flow over it is rectangular; a weir with a
triangular opening is referred to as a triangular weir; etc.
𝑉 𝑢
𝐻+𝑃 + = 𝐻+𝑃 −ℎ +
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑢 = 2𝑔ℎ + 𝑉

∀̇ = 𝑢 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑔ℎ + 𝑉 𝑤 𝑑ℎ

/ /
2 𝑉 𝑉
̇∀ideal = 𝑏 2𝑔 𝐻+ −
3 2𝑔 2𝑔
Flow over a sharp-crested weir.
2 /
∀̇ideal, rec ≅ 𝑏 2𝑔𝐻
3

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2 /
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑝 − 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟: ̇∀rec = 𝐶wd, rec 𝑏 2𝑔𝐻
3

𝐻 𝐻
𝐶wd, rec = 0.598 + 0.0897 for ≤2
𝑃 𝑃

8 𝜃 /
∀̇ideal, tri = tan 2𝑔𝐻
15 2

8 𝜃 /
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑝 − 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟: ∀̇= 𝐶wd, tri tan 2𝑔𝐻
15 2

A triangular (or V-notch)

sharp-crested weir plate
geometry. The view is
from downstream looking
upstream.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
Sharp-Crested Weir 1/4

 A Sharp-Crested weir is essentially a vertical-edged flat plate placed across the

channel.
 The fluid must flow across the sharp edge and drop into the pool downstream of the
weir plate.

97
Sharp-Crested Weir - Geometry 2/4

 Sharp-crested weir plate geometry: (a) rectangular, (b) triangular, (c) trapezoidal.

98
Sharp-Crested Weir – Flowrate 3/4

Assume that the velocity profile upstream of the weir plate is uniform
and that the pressure within the nappe is atmosphere.

Assume that the fluid flows

horizontally over the weir
plate with a nonuniform
velocity profile.

99
Sharp-Crested Weir – Flowrate 4/4

With PB=0 ( free jet), the Bernoulli equation for flow along the
arbitrary streamline A-B indicated can be written as
𝑝 𝑉 𝑢
+ + 𝑧 = (𝐻 + 𝑃 − ℎ) + (26)
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

Since the total head for any particle along the vertical section (1) is
the same
𝑝 𝑉 𝑉
𝑧 + + =𝐻+𝑝 +
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉
(26) 𝑢 = 2𝑔 ℎ +
2𝑔

𝑄= 𝑢 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢 ℓ𝑑ℎ (27)
100
Rectangular Weir – Flowrate 2/2

Cwr is the rectangular weir coefficient.

Cwr is function of Reynolds number (viscous effects), Weber
number (surface tension effects), H/Pw (geometry effects).

In most practical situations, the Reynolds and Weber number

effects are negligible, and the following correction can be used.

 H 
C wr  0.611  0.075  (31)
 Pw 

101
Triangular Weir – Flowrate 1/2

For a triangular weir   2( H  h) tan 2

8 
Q tan 2g H 5 / 2
15 2
V12
 H
2g
An experimentally determined triangular weir coefficient, Cwt, is
used to account for the real world effects neglected in the analysis
so that
8 
Q  C wt tan 2g H 5 / 2 (32)
15 2

102
Triangular Weir – Flowrate 2/2

Weir coefficient for

triangular sharp-crested
weirs

103
 • Classification of open-channel flows
• Uniform and Varied Flows Summary
• Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Channels
• Froude number and wave speed
• Speed of Surface Waves
• Specific energy
• Conservation of mass and energy equations
• Uniform flow in channels
• Critical Uniform Flow
• Superposition Method for Nonuniform Perimeters
• Best hydraulic cross sections
• Rectangular Channels, Trapezoidal Channels
• Gradually varied flow
• Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y(x)
• Some Representative Surface Profiles
• Numerical Solution of Surface Profile
• Rapidly varied flow and the hydraulıc jump
• Flow control and Measurement
• Underflow Gates, Overflow Gates

©McGraw-Hill Education.