Aircraft Propulsion Propeller Throries & Jet Propulsion

Module 2

PROPELLER THRORIES & JET PROPULSION

Syllabus:
Propeller Theories: Types of propeller, Propeller thrust: momentum theory, Blade
element theories, propeller blade design, Propeller selection.
Jet Propulsion: Illustration of working of gas turbine engine – The thrust equation –
Factors affecting thrust – Effect of pressure, velocity and temperature changes of air
entering compressor – Methods of thrust augmentation – Characteristics of turboprop,
turbofan and turbojet – Performance characteristics.

2.1 Propeller Fundamentals

A propeller is an interface between an engine and an aircraft. It creates thrust for
flying an aircraft.

The performance of a propeller is dependent on the local aerodynamics on the blade

elements, integrated over the blade length. For efficient operation each blade element
should be at an Angle of Attack, α, optimized to a value near the maximum elemental lift
to drag (L/D) ratio.

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The AoA(α) is a function of the blade element geometric pitch (blade setting) angle,
β and effective pitch angle (flow angle) φ.
The rotational speed, (U = ω.r) of each blade element is different, but as the forward
speed, Va, is same, the pitch setting needs to be varied from hub to tip so as to maintain the
best AoA for each blade element.
The blade section in fig shows that the section makes an angle β with the rotational
direction, is known as pitch angle (blade setting angle), defined with respect to either (i)
zero lift line, or (ii) chord line, or (ii) the flat undersurface of the blade section.
The “pitch” refers to the forward movement of the propeller for one revolution of
the blade (section).
Theoretically, each section of the propeller may have its own pitch value. However,
since all the blades sections of each blade of a propeller are assembled into one solid body,
all the sections must move forward by the same amount per revolution of the propeller.
Thus, a difference between the geometric pitch, p, for a blade section, and the actual
pitch, for the same section (when the body of the propeller moves forward) arises.
The lift and the drag of a blade element are perpendicular and parallel respectively
to the relative wind direction coming on the blade element.
These may be projected to the forces: Tangential force (for Torque) and axial force
(Thrust), in the planes normal and parallel respectively to the axis of rotation of the
propeller.

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2.2 Propeller Thrust

All propulsors moving in air produce propulsive force, called thrust, by effecting a
net change in momentum to a propulsive fluid in the direction of motion.

Propellers create thrust by introducing a small change in velocity to a relatively

large mass of air, compared to those of various jet propulsion devices.

2.3 Types of Propellers

There are three Pitch setting arrangements:

A fixed pitch propeller, in which the geometric pitch cannot be varied, must be
matched to the various operating conditions of the engine and of the aircraft.

A variable pitch propeller, either variable manually, or through hydro-mechanical

control system, usually offer at least two or more blade settings, one fine and the other
coarse, to maximize the propeller efficiency, during take-off and during cruise respectively.

A constant speed propeller, automatically changes propeller pitch according

to a built in control law (floating pitch) so as to maintain proper torque such that the speed
of the propeller shaft is maintained constant with the help of a governor and a electro-
hydro-mechanical control system. Most modern propellers are constant speed propellers.

2.4 Propeller performance parameters

Advance ratio: J the advance ratio is the ratio of the free stream fluid speed to
the propeller cyclo-rotor tip speed. When a propeller-driven vehicle is moving at high
speed relative to the fluid, or the propeller is rotating slowly, the advance ratio of its
propeller(s) is a high number; and when it is moving at low speed, or the propeller is
rotating at high speed, the advance [Link] advance ratio J is a non-dimensional term
given by

V∞ is the free stream fluid velocity, typically the true airspeed of the aircraft or the water
speed of the vessel, n is the rotor rotational speed, r is the rotor radius.

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The propeller efficiency: The propeller efficiency is given by the usual output
power to input power ratio,

Propeller tip speed: The propeller tip speed is given by

When propeller starts rotating at high speed. The propellers would experience tip speeds,
which are supersonic and then you would have shocks. Those shocks would then reduce
the efficiency of the propellers, the propellers could become of lower efficiency
• Metal propellers are limited to Mtip of 0.85,
• Wooden ones are limited to Mtip of 0.75

2.5 Propeller Theories

There are two classical approaches to propeller theory

1) Momentum Theory
2) Blade Element Theory

1. Momentum Theory for Propeller (or Actuator Disk Theory)

Assumptions for conceptual modeling of a propeller

1) The propeller is assumed to be replaced by an ‘actuator disk’, a flow energizer.

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2) The ‘disk’ is assumed to be of very small thickness and is a continuous and 100% porous
body of no mass, with a projected frontal area ‘A’ (swept area) equal to the annulus of the
rotating propeller blades.
3) There is no ‘resistance’ (i.e. drag) of the air passing through the ‘actuator disk’, (since
there are no propeller blades).
4) The axial velocity, V1through the ‘disk’ is uniform over the ‘actuation’ area and is
considered to be smooth across the disk i.e. no abrupt changes are ‘experienced’.
5) The received energy manifests itself in the working medium (i.e. air) finally in the form
of differential pressure (p2–p1), a jump change across the actuator disk, uniformly
distributed across the disk surface.
6) The fluid medium, air, is a assumed to be a perfect incompressible fluid. Flow is assumed
‘irrotational’ in front of and behind the disk, but not through it. and
7) The static pressures far from the disk, i.e. far upstream and far downstream, are both
assumed equal to the atmospheric pressure. The corresponding velocities are independent
values, to be determined separately.

The mass flow through the disk from continuity, is

𝐦́ = ρ.A.V
The thrust produced by the disk from Newton’s II and III laws resulting in reaction force,
thrust.
T = 𝐦́.∂V = ρ.A.V.(Ve – V∞)
From simple fluid statics, thrust is produced by the differential static pressure on either side
of the disk, multiplied by its surface area (swept area)
T = A (P2– P1)
Applying Bernoulli’s equation on either side of the dis
P∞ +½ρ V∞ 2 = P1 +½ρ V12 –upstream
P2+½ρ V2 2 = P∞ + ½ρ Ve2 –downstream
Using, V1= V2 = constant through the disk,
P2 – P1 = ½.ρ. (Ve2 -V∞2)
From above equations,
V1= ½.(Ve +V∞)
This simple analysis shows that the air flow velocity through the actuator disk is the mean
of the velocities far upstream and far downstream of the propeller.
Thus thrust
T = ½.ρ.(Ve2 -V∞2).A

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The velocity at the disk comes out to be the free stream axial velocity,
V1 = V∞ + v ; and Ve = V∞ + 2.v
Therefore, T = ρ A (V∞ + v) 2.v
From the equation the induced velocity, v, can be found as,

For a static thrust, where the propeller is not in forward motion (at take off), V∞ = zero,

The ideal efficiency can be calculated by using classical definition of eficiency ,

ηp =Pout / Pin
Pout = T V∞ and Pin = T V1
Therefore, ηi = Pout / Pin
= T.V∞ / T.V1
= V∞ / [½(V∞ + Ve)]

2. Blade element theory

The blade elements are assumed to be made up of airfoil shapes of known lift, Cl and drag,
Cd characteristics. In practice a large number of different airfoils are used to make up one
propeller blade. Each of these elements shall have its own lift, Cl and drag, Cd coefficient
characteristics.

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Using the blade elemental lift and drag characteristics the working capacity of the blade
element may be found as:

Thrust produced,
dT = [Link]φ – [Link] φ
= ½ .ρ .VR2 .[Link]. (Cl cosφ –Cd sin φ)
Torque to be supplied ,
dQ = ([Link] φ + [Link]φ). r
= ½ .ρ.VR2 .[Link].([Link] φ + [Link]φ)

Substituting for Resultant inflow velocity Incident and aligned to the blade element,
VR= V∞ /Sin φ
and for Incoming flow Dynamic head based on forward velocity of the element
q = ½ ρ V∞2
The elemental thrust is:

The elemental torque is:

Propeller thrust and torque are now computed by integrating from the root to the tip of the
blade and for number of blades, B

Thus, the net thrust and the torque are seen to be directly proportional to the
number of blades, B and the chord, c.
This is not quite true in practice, as more is the number of blades and wider the
blade chord -it shall result in more surface area, more flow blockage and higher
consequent aerodynamic losses.
The optimum number of blades need to be found separately and not from the
blade element theory.

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2.6 Propeller Selection

Propeller manufacturers offer propellers covering a range of diameters Pitch
Values, and solidities. The choice of these parameters can depend on considerations other
than the aerodynamics. Aerodynamically propeller should have a higher efficiency and
sufficient thrust for cruise and a high static thrust &r take-off
These two requirements are easier to satisfy with an automatically variable pitch
(constant speed) propeller. A fixed pitch propeller is usually a compromise between these
two operating regimes. Given the results of a series of propeller tests, one can utilize these
data to select the best propeller diameter and blade angle combination. One approach that
is sometimes used is based on a coefficient

Recent propeller designs are using highly swept blades, which are reminiscent of
swept wings. But in propellers the use of sweep is for different purpose — it is more to
control the loss of energy in secondary flow (radial and other non-axial flows). These
propellers have started using transonic blade elements to allow the tips to go supersonic
and thus permit use of designs for high subsonic aircraft propulsion. Both the aerodynamic
design and the mechanical design of these Propellers are posing real challenges to the
designers. These propellers are directly coup1ed to the low pressure turbines, with a
possibility of direct drive. Additional problems that come in the way are the noise problems

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2.7 Illustration of working of gas turbine engine (Turbojet)

Fig: The turbojet engine

Working principle:
• The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push
hard against the front of the engine.
• Turbojet engine derives its thrust by accelerating a mass of air through the core
engine.
• The air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to about
3-12 times its original pressure in a centrifugal or axial compressor.
• Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the temperature
of the mixer to about 11000C. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine,
which drives the compressor.
• If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will
be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure.
• This excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high velocity stream of gas
which produces the thrust. Thus all the propulsive force produced by a jet engine is
derived from exhaust gases.
• An afterburner (or a reheat) is an additional component added to some jet engines.
Primarily those on military supersonic aircrafts.
• Its purpose is to provide a temporary increase in thrust at the time of supersonic
flight as well as takeoff.
• On military aircraft, the extra thrust is also useful for combat situations. This is
achieved by injecting additional fuel into the jet pipe downstream of (after) the
turbine.

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Thermodynamic cycle analysis of Turbojet:

Diffuser Efficiency: It’s defined as the ratio of an enthalpy change that occurs between the
entrance to exit stagnation pressure to the kinetic energy.

Compressor Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of ideal work of compression for given
pressure ratio to the actual work of compression for given pressure ratio.

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Burner or combustion efficiency: It is a measure of how effectively the heat content of a

fuel is transferred into useable heat.

Turbine Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of actual work of expansion for given pressure
ratio to the ideal work of expansion for given pressure ratio.

Nozzle Efficiency: it is defined as the ratio of the actual kinetic energy at exit to the kinetic
energy at the exit when the process is isentropic for the same inlet and exit pressure.

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Performance of a Turbojet Engine:

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2.8 The Thrust Equation

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2.9 Factors affecting thrust

2.10 Thrust augmentation

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2.11 Effect of pressure, velocity and temperature changes in

Compressor

Fig: Temperature, pressure and velocity diagram for a typical turbojet engine with and
without afterburner operation
Pressure changes:
• Air usually enters the front of the compressor at a pressure that is less than ambient,
indicating that there is considerable suction at the inlet to the engine. This somewhat
negative pressure at the engine inlet may be partly or completely overcome by ram
pressure as the airplane speed increases.
• From this point on, there is a considerable increasing in the later stages of
compression. A final static pressure rise is accomplished in the divergent section of
the diffuser.
Temperature changes:
• Air entering the compressor at sea level on a standard day is at a temperature of
150C.
• Due to compressor gradually climbs to a point that is determined by the number of
compressor stages and its aerodynamic efficiency. On some large commercial
engines, the temperature at the front of the combustion section is approximately
4270C.
Velocity changes:
• The velocity of the air at the front of the compressor must be less than sonic for
most present-day compressors.

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• If the ambient air velocity is zero (aircraft stationary), the air velocity in front of the
duct increases as it is drawn into the compressor. Because the incoming air at zero
aircraft forward velocity has no kinetic energy relative to the engine intake before
entering, it does not contribute to the total compression ratio. This situation changes
as the ram recovery point of the inlet is reached. From this point on, the relative
kinetic energy does contribute to the total pressure ratio in the form of ram
compression. In a good inlet duct, this compression will occur early and efficiently,
with a minimum temperature rise.
• On the other hand, if the airplane speed is high subsonic or supersonic, the air's
velocity is slowed in the duct. Airflow velocity through the majority of compressors
is almost constant, and in most compressors may decrease slightly. A fairly large
drop in airspeed occurs in the enlarging diffuser passage.
2.12 Turboprop engine

Working principle:
• A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine at the back is
turned by the hot gases and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller.
• Like the turbojet engine, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion
chamber and turbine, which than creates the power to drive the compressor.
• Compared to a turbojet engine, the turboprop engine has better propulsion
efficiency. Modern turboprop engines are equipped with propellers that have a
smaller diameter but a larger number of blades for efficient operation at much
higher flight speeds.
• Turboprop engine drives its propulsion by conversion of gas stream energy into
mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, etc.
• A free turbine is incorporated in the turboprop engine. The shaft in which the free
turbine is mounted drives the propeller through the propeller reduction gear system.
• Approximately 90% of thrust comes from propeller and about only 10% comes
from the exhaust gases.

Characteristics:
• High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which results in shorter takeoff rolls
but fall rapidly as airspeed increases.
• More complicated design and heavier weight than a turbojet.
• Lowest TSFC.

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• Large frontal area of propeller and engine combination that necessitates longer
landing gears for low wing air planes but does not necessarily increase parasitic
drag .
• Possibility of efficient reverse thrust.

Fig: Turboprop engine

Performance:

Advantages:
• Turboprop engines have a higher thrust at takeoff and better fuel economy.
• The frontal area is less than propeller engines so that drag is reduced.
• The turboprop can operate economically over a wide range of speeds ranging from
low speeds where pure jet engine is uneconomical to high speeds of about 800 km/h
where the propeller engine efficiency is low.
• It is easy to maintain and has lower vibrations and noise.
• The power output is not limited as in the case of propeller engines.
• The multishaft arrangement allows a great flexibility of operation over a wide range
of speeds.

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Disadvantages:
• The main disadvantage is that at high speeds, due to shocks and flow separation.
The propeller efficiency decreases rapidly, thereby, putting up a maximum speed
limit on the engine.
• It requires a reduction gear which increases the cost and also consumes certain
amount of energy developed by the turbine in addition to requiring more space.

2.13 Turbofan engine

Working principle:
• A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air
flows around outside of core engine, making it quieter and giving more thrust at
low speeds.
• In a turbojet engine, all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator,
which is composed of the compressor, the combustion chamber and the turbine.
However, in a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming air goes into the
combustion chamber.
• The remaining air or fan air (or secondary air) either leaves separately from the
primary engine air, or ducted back to mix with the primary air through the engine
core at the rear.
• The objective of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel
consumption. This is achieved by increasing the total air mass flow and reducing
the velocity within the same total energy supply.
• The increased efficiency of a turbofan engine is combined with a substantial noise
reduction, typically 10-20%, which is a very important consideration.

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• Turbofan engines are generally classified based on the bypass ratio i.e, low bypass
(1:1), medium bypass (2-3:1) and high bypass (4:1 or greater).
• In a low bypass engine, the fan and compressor sections handle approximately the
same mass of air flow.
• A medium bypass engine produces thrust ratio which is approximately the same as
its bypass ratio. The fan of medium bypass ratio engine has a larger diameter
compared to that on a low bypass engine of comparable power.
• A high bypass turbofan engine utilizes even wider diameter fan in order to push
more air. In this type of engine about 80% of the thrust is provided by the fan and
remaining only 20% by the core engine.

Characteristics:
• Increased thrust at forward speeds similar to turboprop results in a relatively short
takeoff. However, unlike the turboprop, the turbofan thrust is not penalized with
increasing airspeed, up to approximately Mach 1 with current fan designs.
• Weight falls between turbojet and turboprop.
• Ground clearances are less than turboprop but not as good as turbojet.
• TSFC and specific weight falls between turbojet and turboprop, resulting in
increased operating economy and aircraft range over the turbojet.
• Considerable noise level reduction of 10 to 20 percent over the turbojet reduces
acoustic fatigue in surrounding aircraft parts and is less objectionable to the people
on the ground.

Advantages:
• Higher thrust at lower airspeeds.
• Lower TSFC.
• Shorter takeoff distance.
• Considerable noise reduction.

Disadvantages:
• Higher specific weight.
• Larger frontal area.
• Inefficient at high altitudes.

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2.14 Turbojet engine

Working principle:
• The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push
hard against the front of the engine.
• Turbojet engine derives its thrust by accelerating a mass of air through the core
engine.
• The air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to about
3-12 times its original pressure in a centrifugal or axial compressor.
• Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the temperature
of the mixer to about 11000C. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine,
which drives the compressor.

Fig: The turbojet engine

• If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will
be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure.
• This excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high velocity stream of gas
which produces the thrust. Thus all the propulsive force produced by a jet engine is
derived from exhaust gases.
• An afterburner (or a reheat) is an additional component added to some jet engines.
Primarily those on military supersonic aircrafts.
• Its purpose is to provide a temporary increase in thrust at the time of supersonic
flight as well as takeoff.

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• On military aircraft, the extra thrust is also useful for combat situations. This is
achieved by injecting additional fuel into the jet pipe downstream of (after) the
turbine.

Characteristics:
• Low thrust at low forward speed.
• Relatively high, thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at low altitude and
airspeeds, a disadvantage that decreases as altitude and airspeed increase.
• Long takeoff roll.
• Small frontal area, resulting in low drag and reduced ground clearance problems.
• Lightest specific weight.
• Ability to take advantage of high ram pressure ratios.

Advantages:
• The power to weight ratio of a turbojet engine is about 4 times that of a propeller
system having reciprocating engines.
• It is simple, easy to maintain and requires lower lubricating oil consumption.
Furthermore, complete absence of liquid cooling results in reduced frontal area.
• There is no limit to the power output which can obtained from a turbojet while the
piston engines have reached almost their peak power and further increase will be at
the cost of complexity and greater engine weight and frontal area of the aircraft.
• The speed of the turbojet engine is not limited by the propeller and it can attain
higher flight speeds than engine propeller aircrafts.

Disadvantages:
• The fuel economy at low operational speeds is extremely poor.
• It has low takeoff thrust and hence poor starting characteristics.

2.15 Problems (Solve all the problems, whatever did in class)

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