International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 9 Issue 1, Jan-Feb 2025 Available Online: [Link] e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Autonomous Vehicle in Transportation

Matthew N. O. Sadiku1, Paul A. Adekunte2, Janet O. Sadiku3
1
Roy G. Perry College of Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, USA
2
International Institute of Professional Security, Lagos, Nigeria
3
Juliana King University, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Matthew N. O.

Mobility is a basic necessity of contemporary society and it is Sadiku | Paul A. Adekunte | Janet O.
ensured by a three-component system: vehicle, driver and transport Sadiku "Autonomous Vehicle in
infrastructure. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are one technology that Transportation" Published in
International
has captivated the interest of both inventors and customers.
Journal of Trend in
Connected and autonomous vehicles are now becoming a cornerstone Scientific Research
of the increasingly connected world. The main goal of autonomous and Development
vehicles is to build a self-driving system that can perceive the road (ijtsrd), ISSN:
better than the best human driver. They are incredible innovation that 2456-6470,
will likely transform transportation, especially in urban Volume-9 | Issue-1, IJTSRD75135
environments, in the near future. Although autonomous vehicles can February 2025,
improve performance and safety, there are a myriad of serious pp.914-924, URL:
technology, regulatory, and security challenges to consider in [Link]/papers/[Link]
preparation for full vehicle autonomy. The aim of this paper is to
Copyright © 2025 by author (s) and
highlight the roles and challenges of emerging autonomous vehicle
International Journal of Trend in
technologies in transportation. Scientific Research and Development
KEYWORDS: autonomous vehicles, self-driving vehicles, connected Journal. This is an
vehicles, transportation, transportation industry Open Access article
distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
([Link]

INTRODUCTION
As opposed to human-driven vehicles, autonomous Autonomous vehicles (AV) are also described as
vehicles essentially refer to self-driving vehicles. “driverless,” “robotic,” or “self-driving.” They are the
They are vehicles that can drive themselves, using future of automobiles. The race to develop
sensors and technology to navigate roads and respond autonomous vehicles has heated up with many major
to traffic. They are smart vehicles that are able to automotive manufacturers such as Tesla, Audi,
perceive their environment and to move on General Motors, Mercedes Benz, Uber, Google, and
accordingly without human intervention. They Amazon.
operate with the capability to have automatic motions CONCEPT OF AUTOMOUS VEHICLES
and navigate themselves depending on the Autonomous vehicles constitute one of the most
environments and scheduled tasks. Examples of
spectacular recent developments of AI. As opposed to
autonomous vehicle are shown in Figure 1 [1]. human-driven vehicles, autonomous vehicles
Autonomous vehicles combine artificial intelligence essentially refer to self-driving vehicles. They are
(AI) and robotics. They are regarded as a promising smart vehicles that are able to perceive their
answer to traffic jams, accidents, and environmental environment and to move on accordingly without
pollution. They will constitute the backbone of future human intervention. They operate with the capability
next-generation intelligent transportation systems to have automatic motions and navigate themselves
(ITS) providing travel comfort and road safety along depending on the environments and scheduled tasks.
with a number of value-added services. They are used Figure 2 shows the architecture of autonomous car
in search and rescue, urban reconnaissance, mine [3].
detonation, supply convoys, etc. [2]. They can help Autonomous vehicle or driverless car is an ambitious
save lives on the battlefield.
project which requires the fusion of many
technologies like electronics, communications,

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mechatronics, software engineering, artificial Level 0: No automation: All driving tasks and major
intelligence, GPS, and industrial IoT. It is a vehicle systems are controlled by a human driver. The
that uses a combination of sensors, cameras, radar, automated system has no vehicle control but can issue
and artificial intelligence (AI) to travel between warnings.
destinations without a human operator. It is designed
Level 1: Function-specific automation: Provides
to be able to detect objects on the road, maneuver
limited driver assistance. The driver must be ready to
through the traffic without human intervention, and
take control at any time.
get to the destination safely. It is fitted with AI-based
functional systems such as voice and speech Level 2: Partial driving automation: At least two
recognition, gesture controls, eye tracking, and other primary functions are combined to perform an action.
driving monitoring systems. Several companies have The driver is obliged to detect objects and events and
announced their plan to get involved in autonomous react if the automated system does not respond
or driverless and electric vehicle technology correctly.
Connected and autonomous vehicles (Avs) are now Level 3: Conditional driving automation: Enables
becoming a cornerstone of the increasingly connected limited self-driving automation. Vehicles at this level
world. They are receiving a lot of attention from can make informed decisions for themselves. In
manufacturers, service providers, governments, known environments (such as highways), the driver
universities, consumers, and other stakeholders. The can safely divert his attention from driving tasks.
main goal of autonomous vehicles is to build a self- Level 4: High driving automation: An automated
driving system that can perceive the road better than driving system performs all dynamic tasks of driving.
the best human driver. They are incredible innovation The automated system can control the vehicle in
that will likely transform transportation, especially in almost any environment, such as extreme weather
urban environments, in the near future. Although conditions. and fewer parking spaces.
autonomous vehicles can improve performance and
safety, there are a myriad of serious technology, Level 5: Self-driving automation: An automated
regulatory, and security challenges to consider in driving system performs all dynamic functions of
preparation for full vehicle autonomy. driving. No human intervention is required. A vehicle
at this level requires no driver. It is on its own and
Autonomous vehicles combine artificial intelligence must be able to react to all situations that might arise.
(AI) and robotics. They are regarded as a promising
answer to traffic jams, accidents, and environmental The six levels are shown in Figure 3 [8] and are
pollution. They will constitute the backbone of future summarized as follows: No Automation, Driver
next-generation intelligent transportation systems Assistance, Partial Automation, Conditional
(ITS) providing travel comfort and road safety along Automation, High Automation, and Complete
with a number of value-added services. They are used Automation. The classification has been adopted by
in search and rescue, urban reconnaissance, mine DOT. Vehicles sold today are in levels 1 and 2.
detonation, supply convoys, etc. [4]. They can help Levels 4 and 5 will probably increase vehicle prices
save lives on the battlefield. significantly. But how do we get to Level 5?
Autonomous vehicle (AV) IS also described as ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
“driverless,” “robotic,” or “self-driving.” AV is AV is regarded as a multidisciplinary technology. The
regarded as a multidisciplinary technology. The enabling technologies in support of connected
enabling technologies in support of connected autonomous vehicles include:
autonomous vehicles include camera, GPS & GNSS,  Camera: This is located at the top of the
and sensors, radar, LiDAR (Light Detection and windshield. It detects on the ground the lines to
Ranging), and Internet of things. The race to develop follow. It also identifies the cars, pedestrians, and
autonomous vehicles has heated up with many major animals on the road.
automotive manufacturers such as Tesla, Audi,
General Motors, Mercedes Benz, Uber, Google, and  GPS & GNSS: Autonomous vehicles use GPS
Amazon [5]. (Global Positioning System) and GNSS (Global
Navigation Satellite System) to navigate to
LEVELS OF AUTONOMY desired locations.
SAE International (formerly the Society of
Automotive Engineers) classifies autonomous  Sensors: Autonomous vehicles are being
vehicles on a scale of 0 to 5. The six levels are equipped with many sensors such as cameras,
presented as follows [6,7]: RADAR, LIDAR, and mechanical control units.
The sensors gather data from around the

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environment and the GPS. Since no sensor is services like ride-hailing and car-sharing
perfect, autonomous vehicles will require a platforms. They will increase the mobility of
variety of sensors to properly see the world individuals who do not drive as a result of age or
around them. disability. AI promotes advanced driving so that
people can experience easy navigation. AI can
 Computer Vision: This is a critical technology
that allows AVs to interpret and understand visual help provide customized entertainment while the
information from the environment. Using cameras vehicle is traveling.
and sophisticated image recognition algorithms,  Trucking: Autonomous trucks and vehicles
autonomous vehicles can identify and classify promise significant benefits for an industry that
objects such as other vehicles, pedestrians, traffic struggles with a growing labor shortage and the
signs, road markings, and obstacles. This visual demand for shorter delivery times. The American
understanding is crucial for safe and efficient Trucking Association estimates a shortage of as
navigation. many as 174,500 drivers by 2024, due to an aging
Figure 4 illustrates some of these technologies [9]. workforce and the difficulty of attracting younger
drivers. Although there has been much progress
APPLICATIONS OF AUTONOMOUS made toward developing autonomous vehicles to
VEHICLES transport people, many believe that integrating
The advent of autonomous vehicles (AVs) represents autonomous trucks into the freight transportation
one of the most significant technological supply chain is still a decade or more away.
advancements in the transportation sector. Common However, the thought of large trucks driving
areas of applications of autonomous vehicles include themselves on highways or in busy urban areas
the following [10]: give rise to a number of concerns. Before
 Autonomous Driving: AI enables vehicles to commercial freight trucks run freely on the roads
navigate roads, avoid obstacles, follow traffic with no drivers at the wheel, there are many
rules, and respond to dynamic changes in the questions that need to be answered and issues to
environment. This includes highway driving, be addressed related to government regulations,
urban navigation, and parking. Autonomous legal risks, liability concerns, ongoing
vehicles can maintain lane positions, adjust maintenance, and the need for employees and
speeds, and overtake slower vehicles on highways infrastructure to support it all. An autonomous
using AI-driven systems like adaptive cruise Volvo truck is shown in Figure 6 [12].
control and lane-keeping assistance.  Rail: Autonomous trucks (ATs) will have an
 Electric Vehicles: Environmental concerns, impact on the rail industry. To keep up with ever-
together with higher oil prices in the last decade changing technology, railroads are increasingly
have been the driving forces behind the embracing digitization and thinking about rail
emergence of electric vehicle (EV) technology. transport as a part of a comprehensive supply
The EV suffers from some operational drawbacks chain solution. Railroads will need to understand
including a distance-traveling capacity limited to how ATs may impact their intermodal business,
the size and durability of the batteries. It limits the as well as first- and last-mile deliveries. It will be
EV to short-range travel and can make the process key to be prepared for this change and embrace it
of finding charging stations a matter of constant as advances in technology continue. Although
anxiety. trains may not be running themselves any time
soon, the industry is working through some
 Transportation: AVs could transform how people automation initiatives of its own. If you are a
and goods are transported. Public autonomous business that relies on truck and rail to deliver
vehicles (AVs) have a high potential to solve your goods across the country, it might be time to
traffic related problems and environmental consider how ATs could impact your production
challenges. Transport as a Service (TaaS) allows pipeline and schedule.
you to transport goods and material on demand,
while only paying for the capacity you use. Figure  Taxi: AV technologies can be conducive to
5 shows a diversified public transport system driverless taxis or similar car-sharing schemes in
[11]. which the cost of compensating cabdrivers’ time
and talent is excluded. As a result, driverless cabs
 Smart Mobility: Autonomous vehicles are an are expected to become cheaper and which
essential part of smart mobility in smart cities. eventually may discourage car ownership. The
They can be integrated into shared mobility concept of driverless taxis is analogous to car-

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sharing which is a thriving business model. AVs to Covid-19 crisis. Microsoft is focusing its
can boost car and ride sharing schemes as they autonomous vehicle efforts [13].
can cater to multiple persons on demand.
 The Netherlands: Dutch traffic law poses some
 Drones: Advanced driver-assistance systems challenges for fully autonomous self-driving cars.
(ADAS) and autonomous technologies are used in One challenge is making the behavior of
drones to improve safety, reliability, and autonomous vehicles (AV) conform to the traffic
performance. ADAS technologies such as LiDAR laws. The safety and efficiency purposes of traffic
(Light Detection and Ranging) create a 3D map of law require it to be precise. Dutch traffic law that
the environment, helping the drone navigate and are easy for humans seem very hard for the
land safely. current autonomous vehicles. For example, while
 Predictive Maintenance: Predictive analytics is the Google car may avoid colliding with a police
one of the strongest capabilities of AI and officer, it may fail to obey the officer’s directions
machine learning. The essence of predictive [14].
maintenance is that the system analyzes the  China: The expansion into China is a major
equipment, compares its specs with industry and strategic move for Aptiv, a self-driving software
safety standards. The essence of reactive company. China is expected to account for more
maintenance is to replace a critical part before it than two-thirds of autonomous miles driven
crashes the production system. By monitoring worldwide by 2040. FAW Group, a China-based
vehicle health and performance data, AI can manufacturer of trucks, buses, and cars, is moving
predict when maintenance is needed, reducing forward with several self-driving initiatives.
downtime and extending vehicle lifespan.
 Israel: Israel is evolving into a major hub for self-
GLOBAL AI IN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES driving technology, with Intel, Continental,
Third world countries struggle with a lack of Samsung, Daimler, and General Motors also
transportation infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, making investments or setting up shop in the
and public transport, which is impeding their country.
economic development. AVs by these developing
 European Union: In 2019, the European Union’s
countries may spare them the costs associated with
Commissioner for Transport at said she expected
expanding capital-intensive infrastructure.
fully autonomous driving capabilities to arrive by
Autonomous vehicles are becoming a real possibility
2030. The European Telecommunications
in some sectors such as agriculture, transportation,
Standards Institute (ETSI) has developed a set of
and military. Here we consider the adoption of
technical specifications to define an Intelligent
autonomous vehicles in different nations.
Transport System (ITS) security architecture .
 United States: Americans spend over 290 hours French president responded sharply to rising
per year driving, making it one of the most pressure from the industrial sector and plans to
common (and dangerous) points of human- grant driving licenses for level 3 cars, country-
machine interaction. The National Highway wide, from 2020. Fully autonomous vehicles are
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) contends to be tested in France very soon [15].
that automated vehicles can reduce injuries. In
BENEFITS
early 2015, Ford announced its “Smart Mobility
Autonomous vehicles have been receiving a lot of
Plan” to push the company forward in innovative
attention recently largely due to the technological
areas including vehicle connectivity and boom of artificial intelligence. They promise to
autonomous cars. As part of its 10-year reduce traffic congestion and collisions, reduce
autonomous vehicle plan, Ford is steadily
accident and pollution problems, improve traffic flow,
increasing its fleet and currently has around 100 mobility, relieve individuals from driving, decrease
autonomous test vehicles. It has pioneered the fuel consumption, and facilitate transportation and
testing of self-driving cars in environments businesses operations. Based on the data collected
including snowy weather and complete darkness. over time, AI can speculate and provide preferences
The Covid-19 pandemics has forced Ford to delay such as seat position adjustment, screen adjustment,
the launch of its self-driving service to 2022. GM controls air input, and songs to be played. Other
planned to deploy thousands of self-driving benefits include [16]:
electric vehicles beginning in 2018. A full
commercial self-driving operation is taking longer  Safety and Privacy: Safety is at the core of
to materialize than GM initially hoped, partly due everything we do. Security and privacy are
always being the major issue associated with the

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electronic systems. The main benefit of  Quality Control: Once the parts are put into
autonomous vehicle is safety. Autonomous production, it is necessary to carefully control
vehicles are fully capable of sensing the their quality. Sensor-based AI can assess the
surrounding environment to enhance roadway quality of every part on the production line and
safety. AVs are designed to choose the course of detect defects more accurately than humans.
action that causes the less damage to everybody.
 Leaner Supply Chain: Automotive supply chains
Autonomous cars can remove risk factors from
are complex networks. AI-powered supply chains
the equation and significantly reduce the number
are being used to analyze a massive amount of
of accidents or crashes. AI techniques are also
data to be able to forecast accurately. AI-powered
being implemented in vehicles to provide more
supply chains will allow fully automated self-
safety by simply removing the need of a human
adjusting systems to make supply-chain
driver, the most common cause of traffic
management decisions autonomously, adjusting
accidents. To ensure safety, automakers are
routes and volumes to meet predicted demand
introducing many exciting features such as
spikes.
automatic emergency braking, lane crossing
alerts, driver and passenger monitoring, blind spot  Improved Accessibility: Self-driving automobiles
elimination, side collision warning, and optional have the potential to give mobility to people who
self-driving capabilities. Risk of cyberattack will cannot drive, such as the old, handicapped, or
increase since the Avs are a moving computer. visually impaired. Transportation becomes more
inclusive and accessible for all with autonomous
 Mobility: AV provides new opportunities for
technology.
millions of Americans with disabilities, allowing
them to travel freely and easily without the need  Reliability: Ensuring the safety and reliability of
to operate a car themselves. Having access to a AVs is paramount. Unlike human drivers,
self-driving car could expand transportation autonomous delivery vehicles maintain consistent
options for people with physical disabilities, older performance without the risk of fatigue or human
adults, and people who are not licensed to drive. error. This reliability ensures timely deliveries
Illness, fatigue, or intoxication are also cases and enhances customer satisfaction. Equipped
where AVs could provide a safer transportation with advanced sensors and GPS technology, AVs
option. can accurately navigate to delivery destinations,
reducing the likelihood of misdeliveries and
 Consumer Behavior: To be successful, Avs has to
improving service accuracy.
cope with individual idiosyncrasies and variation
in needs. Deployment of autonomous vehicles on CHALLENGES
public roads requires understanding the intent of There are risks and challenges autonomous vehicles
human drivers and adapting to their driving face in reaching full autonomy. It is challenging to
styles. Interacting with human drivers is a major support security, stability, reliability, and security
challenge of autonomous driving. Changes in requirements. AVs pose numerous ergonomic, safety,
consumer behavior and technology are disrupting regulatory, and political problems. Autonomous
traditional modes of operation. AI and perception vehicles (AVs) are poised to improve roadway safety
technologies promise to provide a safer and more and lower transportation costs, yet policy barriers are
deterministic behavior which will lead to benefits delaying their adoption. Other challenges posed by
such as fuel efficiency, comfort, and convenience. autonomous vehicles include the following [17-20]:
 Ease of Claim: Data from the vehicle can be used  Safety: Ensuring the safety of the decisions made
for faster processing of claims in case of by the self-driving car is the hardest part of
accidents. This can contribute to decrease in reaching level five autonomy. Ensuring safety is
prices for insurance, since the safety is more not something that can be solved with a single
deterministic and guaranteed. technological silver bullet. Rather it requires a
multi-disciplinary approach covering hardware
 Less Equipment Failure: If a machine fails fault tolerance, resilient machine learning,
unexpectedly on an automotive assembly line, the cooperation with humans driving conventional
costs can be catastrophic. AI-based algorithms vehicles. Autonomous vehicles are designed to
can digest masses of data from sources, detect avoid accidents caused by human errors.
anomalies, separate errors from background Although AVs allow all vehicle occupants to
noise, diagnose the problem, and predict if a relax, read, work, and watch television, they are
breakdown is likely or imminent. required to wear seatbelts for safety reasons.

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 Security: In addition to safety, autonomous sharing the road with autonomous vehicles. This
vehicles will have to deal with security. Some may be due to distractions caused by pedestrians.
security risks and vulnerabilities associated with Autonomous vehicles promise a future where
AV have been identified. Autonomous vehicles drivers are freed from a tedious driving and traffic
pose a myriad of security concerns due to the risk collisions are a relic of history.
of cybersecurity breaches. Cybersecurity
 Ethics: AVs pose both technological and ethical
protection is necessary to ensure vehicle optimal
challenges. Several ethical challenges of
performance. Protecting autonomous vehicles
autonomous vehicles have been identified.
from hackers is of a major concern to
Mundane traffic situations illustrate how the
governments, manufacturers, and service
driving behavior of autonomous vehicles meshes
providers. DOT mandated the incorporation of a
with the rights and responsibilities of other traffic
thorough cybersecurity threat mitigation system
participants. The public has raised the question of
in vehicle electronics. Encrypting
how AV would behave when an accident is
communications between vehicles may help with
inevitable, how AV weighs decisions, and what
the security of inter-vehicle coordination
such decisions mean in relation to others. What
messaging. The future of security breaches will be
ethical considerations should constrain the
revolutionized with advanced technologies such
behavior of AVs? Can we trust AVs to always
as artificial neural networks.
make good decisions even in extreme emergency
 Privacy: Before selling highly automated situations? AV is said to have “ethical
vehicles, it is required that manufacturers develop limitations” because it is unlikely to have the
written privacy plans concerning the collection capacity to make decisions which encompass
and storage of data generated by the vehicles. human values, rights, societal norms, and ethics.
There should be a means of making that
 Education: Education on autonomous vehicles
information transparent to vehicle owners and
plays an important role because many major
occupants.
automotive companies depend on it for building
 Regulations: Regulation will impact the adoption their workforce. One way of gaining knowledge
of AVs. In the US there are no national standards of autonomous vehicles is by taking video-based
or guidelines for AVs, allowing states to online courses provided by various companies.
determine their own. As of February 2020, 29
Some of these challenges are illustrated in Figure 7
states and D.C. have enacted legislation regarding
[21]. These issues will become part of the public
the definition of AVs, their use, and liability.
discussion. The anticipated merits of autonomous
 Social Acceptance: The social acceptance of vehicles are more the perceived disadvantages.
autonomous vehicles is evidently a complex Automakers can only program their cars to act within
process. Recent studies show that public some bounds. They are working to overcome these
skepticism about autonomous vehicles. This is challenges on all fronts. Governments around the
may be due to lack of understanding about world should prepare for a wide range of technical,
autonomous vehicles. It is DOT’s concern that social, and regulatory issues in preparation for full
consumer should be educated and trained as vehicle autonomy.
vehicles are deployed. Consumers should know
THE FUTURE OF AI IN AUTONOMOUS
about the anticipated differences in the use and
VEHICLES
operation of AVs and conventional vehicles. For
The autonomous vehicle is but one application of AI
citizens to embrace the autonomous vehicles, auto
technologies which have a significant bearing on
manufacturers must demonstrate trust in the
contemporary and future society [22]. Future
vehicle and improve its safety.
autonomous (electric) vehicles are essentially
 Adaptation: It is impractical to validate all the software-driven compared to conventional vehicles.
possible adaptation states of an autonomy system Cars are being manufactured all over the world, with
using traditional safety design processes. The each manufacturer in intense competition with one
challenge is that influencing the autonomous another to produce the best vehicle. Autonomous cars
vehicle’s decisions requires a wide variety of are the future smart cars which are expected to be
parameters such as traffic conditions, pedestrian driverless, efficient, crash avoiding, and ideal urban
conditions, and weather condition. car of the future. Some are working tirelessly to
create their very own self-driving vehicle from
 Human Error: Most of the crashed involving
scratch. AI is a critical technology required for
autonomous vehicles are due to human drivers
realizing autonomous driving. Car manufacturers

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Figure 1 Examples of autonomous vehicles [1].

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Figure 2 Architecture of Autonomous Car [3].

Figure 3 The six levels of autonomy [8].

Figure 4 Autonomous vehicle technology [8].

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Figure 5 A diversified public transport system [11].

Figure 6 An autonomous Volvo truck [12].

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Figure 7 Main challenges of the automated vehicles [21].

Figure 8 Seven trends shaping the automotive industry by 2030.

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