Introduction to internet and use of internet for communication

🌐 What is the Internet?

The Internet is a vast, global system of interconnected computer networks that share
information and resources via standardized protocols like TCP/IP. It's often described as a
"network of networks," and though it began in the late 1960s with ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network), it only became publicly accessible in the early 1990s.

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is suite of communication protocols

that govern how devices connect and exchange data over the internet and other networks.

The Internet is more than just access to websites—it’s a transformative communication

ecosystem. It offers instant, cost-effective, and flexible channels for connecting people across
the globe. Email, chat, voice and video calls, social media, and online communities have
reshaped how we communicate, learn, collaborate, and support one another.

Core Technologies

 Packet-switching breaks data into small packets sent independently and reassembled on arrival
 The Web (WWW) is built on the Internet, using browsers to access interlinked resources via
HTML.

💬 Using the Internet for Communication

1. Email
 The earliest and still essential form of digital communication—first sent in 1971 over
ARPANET.
 Enables fast, asynchronous messaging globally.
2. Instant Messaging (IM) & Chat
 Services like WhatsApp, Messenger, Telegram, and IRC (Internet Relay Chat) allow real-time
text messaging and media sharing
 Fast, efficient, and supports group conversation.
3. VoIP & Video Conferencing
 Tools like Skype, Zoom, Teams, and Google Meet enable real-time voice and video
communication at low cost.
 Transformed remote work, education, healthcare, and international collaboration.
4. Social Media & Forums
 Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, plus forums and blogs offer wide-
reaching communication and community building
 Fuel discussions, crowdfunding, activism, and cultural exchange.
5. Online Communities & Fandoms
 From early bulletin boards (BBSs) to modern forums and health communities, these spaces
provide support, shared learning, and social capital.
 ⚙️Benefits of Internet Communication
 Speed & Efficiency: Messages and video chats are instant worldwide
 Low Cost: Free or inexpensive compared to international calls or travel
 Global Reach: Connect across cultures, languages, and time zones.
 Flexibility & Accessibility: Available anywhere, any time, on multiple devices
 Collaboration: Real-time teamwork across borders using shared documents and project tools
 Record Keeping: Conversations, emails, and videos can be archived and reviewed
 Inclusivity: Assistive technologies support people with disabilities; remote access benefits those
in rural or underserved regions.
 Education & Learning: Enables online classes, tutorials, and global academic collaboration.
 Support & Community: Online health or special-interest forums offer emotional and
informational support

Search Academic Literature and Databases Using the Internet

To effectively search academic literature and databases using the internet, here’s a structured,
step-by-step guide that blends strategic methodologies with practical tools:

1. Clarify Your Research Question 🎯

Begin with a clearly defined question or topic. Identify core concepts and potential study
designs. This focus informs your keyword choices and search scope

2. Choose the Right Databases & Search Engines

 Use institutional or library portals to access databases
like JSTOR, PubMed, ScienceDirect, ERIC, and discipline-specific repositories
 Leverage powerful academic search engines: Google Scholar (broad, citation-based), Semantic
Scholar (AI-enhanced summaries and semantic ranking), Paperity, CORE, and arXiv (for
preprints)

3. Develop and Refine Search Terms

 Brainstorm keywords, including synonyms, related terms, and jargon relevant to your field
 Use Boolean operators:
 AND to narrow results (e.g. “machine learning AND healthcare”)
 OR to broaden (e.g. “teen OR adolescent”)
 NOT to exclude irrelevant terms.
 Implement phrase searching (“exact phrase”), truncation (e.g. psycholog*), and wildcards (colo?
r) where supported

4. Apply Advanced Filters & Tools

 Use filters like publication date, peer-review status, journal, article type, or author to refine
results
 Explore built-in features: “Cited by,” “Related articles,” and reference trails assist in uncovering
influential or related work

5. Evaluate the Quality and Credibility

 Prioritize peer-reviewed sources, reputable journals/institutions, and authors with recognized
expertise.
 Check website credibility via domain (.edu, .gov, .org), authorship, date, objectivity, and
reliability
 Cross-reference findings across sources to strengthen evidence

6. Stay Organized with Management Tools

 Use reference management software like Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote, or library tools to save
citations, PDFs, and organize sources by theme or project
 Document your search process—record databases used, date ranges, search terms, filters—to
trace or adjust your method later

7. Monitor Ongoing Research Developments

 Set up email alerts or RSS feeds on platforms like PubMed, Google Scholar, or database alerts
to receive new publications matching your saved search criteria
 Keep up via social networks (e.g., ResearchGate, academic Twitter, journal announcements),
while ensuring you critically evaluate non–peer-reviewed materials.

8. Validate and Expand with AI Tools

 Tools like OpenAI’s Deep Research tool can summarize research, highlight key studies, and act
as a quick overview—though they're best used as supplements, not replacements for critical
appraisal.
 Semantic Scholar excels at highlighting influential work, summarizing papers with TLDR
captions, and offering semantic context across millions of publications .

🧠 Workflow Snapshot
Step Action

Define your question Frame a specific topic or question and list keywords

Select databases Use Google Scholar, PubMed, subject-specific databases

Search smart Use Boolean operators, filtering, phrase/truncation

Screen effectively Check relevance, publication quality, credibility

 Step Action

Track your work Use reference managers, record search logs

Stay updated Set alerts and follow relevant researchers/journals

Use AI support Apply tools like Semantic Scholar and Deep Research for overview

Systematic literature searching combines clear objectives, strategic querying, critical

evaluation, and continuous tracking. By mastering keywords, Boolean logic, and specialized
tools, you can navigate the immense volume of online research with efficiency and academic
integrity.

Emergence and development of Bioinformatics

Here’s a refined overview of the emergence and development of Bioinformatics — grounded

in history, milestones, and its global journey:

Origins: From Sequences to Computers

 1950s–1960s – Protein sequencing: Frederick Sanger’s sequencing of insulin in the early 1950s
set the stage. As protein data accumulated, manual comparison became infeasible, sparking the
need for informatic solutions
 1965 – Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure: Margaret Oakley Dayhoff and Richard Eck
compiled the first protein sequence database using punched cards, pioneering sequence
alignment and evolutionary matrices
 1970 – “Bioinformatics” coined: Dutch biologists Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper
formalized the field, defining it as “the study of informatic processes in biotic systems”

📚 Building the Infrastructure: Databases & Algorithms

 1970s–1980s – Nucleotide and protein databases: Establishment of GenBank (1982), EMBL
(1980), DDBJ (1984), PIR, and PDB (1977) facilitated global data sharing
 1970 – Sequence alignment algorithms: Needleman–Wunsch and Smith–Waterman
foundationally shaped global/local sequence alignment techniques
 1977–1990s – Efficient search tools: Frederick Sanger’s methods enabled genome sequencing
breakthroughs, but tools like FASTA and especially BLAST (1990) revolutionized sequence
searches

Genomic Explosion: Human Genome & Big Data

 1990–2003 – Human Genome Project: Massive international effort mapping ~85% by 2003,
later completed to 100% by 2022.
 1990s – Internet & web interfaces: Online tools like NCBI Entrez enabled rapid, large-scale
data retrieval and cross-referencing
 Early 2000s – Sequencing boom: Next-generation sequencing led to a deluge of data, pushing
bioinformatics into big-data territory with challenges in storage, analysis, and reproducibility.

💻 Broadening Horizons: Tools, Sub-fields, and Applications

 Databases & suites: From EMBOSS (late 1990s) to KEGG (1995) by Kanehisa, bioinformatics
matured with analytical tools and pathway databases
 Emerging subdisciplines: Structural bioinformatics, systems biology, synthetic biology, and
biomedical informatics evolved with specialized software like Biopython, Bioconductor, 3D
genome modeling, and in silico cell simulation

🌍 Global Growth & Regional Development

 Africa and global south: Late 1990s saw the emergence of African bioinformatics through
SANBI (1996), ABioNet, ASBCB, and NIH-funded H3ABioNet, building capacity and
infrastructure
 China and India: Late 1980s onward, these countries began establishing bioinformatics
programs, centers, and national networks

🚀 Modern Era: Integration, Education & Impact

 Educational integration: Bioinformatics is now fundamental to biology degrees worldwide,
driven by massive data demands and analytic tool complexity.
 Industry and collaboration: In 2000, tech giants like IBM began investing heavily, integrating
large-scale computation with biomedical data analytics.
 Interdisciplinary reach: Algorithms originally from biology are now applied in cybersecurity,
reverse engineering, and more—demonstrating the cross-domain impact of bioinformatics.

🔑 Key Takeaways
1. Pioneering data management: From punched cards to databases like GenBank and PDB.
2. Algorithmic breakthroughs: Sequence alignment, BLAST and FASTA enabling functional and
evolutionary insights.
3. Genomic-scale transformation: HGP and next-gen sequencing increased both volume and
complexity of data.
4. Diversification: Expansion into varied sub-fields and global capacity-building initiatives.
5. Ubiquity today: Bioinformatics is now inseparable from life sciences, medicine, agriculture, and
even cybersecurity.