COMPUTER CONNECTIONS (Continues…)
CPU Main Memory (Continues…)
Rambus RAM
This is the latest and fastest RAM in terms of response time.
Special purpose memories
Some minute types of memories are included inside a microprocessor.
These are:
Cache memory
Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a fast type of RAM. There are three types of cache
memory namely:
Level 1: also known as primary cache is located inside the microprocessor.
Level 2: also known as external cache may be inside the microprocessor or mounted on the
motherboard.
Level 3: is the latest type of cache that works with 1,2 cache to optimize system performance.
Buffers
Buffers are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is held in the
input buffer while processed output is held in output buffer. For example, computer printers
have buffers where they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing hence
freeing the CPU so that it can perform other urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the
background.
Registers
As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.
Examples of registers are:
Accumulator: this temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
Instruction register: this temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form
that the CPU can understand.
Address register: this temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
Storage register: this temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU
and the main memory.
Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes.
A Byte is equivalent to a single character. Characters can be numbers from 0 to 9, letters A to Z,
or a special symbol. For example a number 2545 has four byte while word, My Home has seven
bytes since; the space between them has 1 byte. Bytes are formed from bits 8 bits make 1 byte.
Memory quantities can be expressed in:
1. Kilobytes (KB) – Approximately one thousand bytes, but the actual size is 1024 bytes.
This is because the computer uses base 2 system (0 and 1; 2 o).
2. Megabytes (MB) – Approximately one million bytes but the actual size is 1048576 bytes.
3. Gigabyte (GB) – Approximately one billion bytes but the actual size is 1073741824
bytes.
4. Terabytes – Approximately one trillion bytes but the actual size is 1099511627776 bytes.
OVERALL FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE CPU
Figure below shows a summary of the overall functional organization of the CPU and how it
controls other computer components.
CPU
Instructions Control Unit Instructions Instructions
Controls all activities
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Calculates and compares
data
Results of Data to be
Processing processed
Input data Main Memory
Input unit Stores data and instructions Output data Output unit
temporarily
Output to be Data to be
Stored processed
Secondary storage devices
Backing storage for data and
instructions
Overall functional organization of the CPU
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit, the Control Unit and the Main Memory use electrical pathways
or links referred to as Buses. There are three types of buses namely:
Control bus: This is the pathway for all tuning and controlling functions sent by the control unit
to other parts of the system.
Address bus: This is the pathway used to locate the storage position in memory where the next
instruction data to be processed is held.
Data bus: This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.
TRENDS IN PROCESSOR TECHNOLOGY AND SPEED
Over time, manufacturers of microprocessors such as Intel, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD),
Cyrix and the former Sun Microsystems have several brands of microprocessors in the market.
Each release seeks to address performance and cost. One parameter used to measure
performance is clock speed measured in Hertz (Hz). A Hertz is a unit of frequency which
measures the number of cycles per second in a signal. A processor clock speed can be in
Kilohertz (KHz), Megahertz (MHz) and Gigahertz (GHz).
Table below shows a summary of microprocessors trends since 1978.
Processor Year Manufacturer Speed and Remarks
Intel 8086 1978 Intel 5 Mhz – 10 MHz
Intel 8088 1979 Intel Similar to 8086
Intel 80186 1980 Intel 25 Mhz
Intel 80286 1982 Intel 6 – 12.5 MHz
Intel 80386 1985 –1990 Intel 16 – 33 Mhz
Intel 80486 1990 Intel Upgradable
Pentium 1993 Intel 60, 66, 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166 and 200 MHz
Pentium Pro 1995 Intel 150, 166, 180 and 200 MHz Used on servers
AMD K5 1995 AMD 75, 90, 100, and 116 MHz
Pentium MMX 1997 Intel 166, 200 and 233 MHz with MMX technology
Pentium II 1997 Intel Pugged on to Single-edge contact (SEC)
AMD K6 1997 AMD 166 – 266 MHz
Cyrix 6×86 1997 Cyrix 150, 166 or 187 MHz
Pentium III 1999 Intel 450 MHz – 1.13 GHz
AMD Athron 1999 AMD 500 MHz – 2.33 GHz
AMD Duron 2000 AMD 600 MHz – 1.8 GHz
Pentium 4 Nov. 2000 Intel 1.4 GHz – 1.8 GHz
Intel Core 2 Duo 2006 Intel >1.6 GHz × 2
AMD Athron Dual Core 2005 AMD >2.0 GHz × 2
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
These are devices that enable communication between two or more computers. Some of them
are:
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard. It has
ports through which cables from other computers and devices can be plugged in (some NICs are
wireless, i.e. they can be connected to other computers and devices without the use of cables.
Data moves from the computer, through the NIC and the cables to other devices. Today, most
computer motherboards come ready with onboard Network Interface Card.
Figure 1: Network Interface Card (NIC)
Modems (Modulator and Demodulator)
A modem is a device that converts computer signal from digital form to analog form and vice
versa for purposes of transmission over analog media like telecommunication wires. A modem
can be external or built on the motherboard. Improvements in technology have resulted in
modems that are smaller in size but very powerful.
Figure 2: External Modems
Hubs
A hub is a device that connects computers on a network. It relays information from one
computer to another on the same network.
Figure 3: computers connected using a hub
COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM UNIT
The power button
The Motherboard
The data cables
The Integrated circuit (IC) chips
The Processor
Power cables
The LED lights
The Hard Disk
The ports
Memory slots chips
Power box
SETTING UP A COMPUTER
Before setting up a computer, you need to know the various parts and cables used to connect to
the mains power supply.
POWER SUPPLY UNIT
Though computers are connected to AC power supply, internal components require DC power.
Desktop PCs use power supply unit mounted on system casings. You connect the power supply
to the mains using a power cable. The work of the power supply unit is to convert AC to DC.
Figure 3: Power supply unit
PORTS AND INTERFACE CABLES
Peripheral devices are connected to the system unit through ports using either cables or wireless
connectivity. Looking at the back of your computer, you are likely to see ports.
Figure 4: ports on the backside of system unit.
Parallel interface
Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires). For
example, if a cable uses 8 lines to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit parallel
cable. The advantage of using such cables is that they transmit data faster over a short distance.
A parallel cable connects to a parallel interface port commonly referred to as Line Printer
(LPT). Parallel cables are used to connect printers, optical scanners and some removable storage
drives such as zip drive.
Figure 5: Parallel cable and port
Serial interface
Serial ports also known as COM or RS323 ports, support transmission of data one bit at a time,
hence it is slower than the parallel port. Although they are slower, they are more reliable than
the parallel ports because they can support data transmission to devices connected 15 meters
away. Serial cables are generally used to connect devices such as the mouse and some printers.
Figure 6: 9-pin serial cable
Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface
Universal Serial Bus is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the conventional
parallel and serial cables ports. Currently, most peripheral devices from printers to mobile
phones are coming with USB as the default interface. Although it transmits only 1-bit at a time,
it provides very high-speed and quality data transmission over distances of approximately 5
meters. There are two types of USBs namely low speed (1.1) and a relatively faster high speed
(2.0). A USB port can be used to connect as many as 127 devices to a computer daisy chained
to a single port known as the hub root.
Figure 7: USB interface cable
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
Small computer systems interface cables transmit data in parallel but are faster than the parallel
cables. Another advantage of the SCSI port is that one SCSI port allows us to connect multiple
devices.
Personal Systems 2 (PS/2) interface
Originally, most computers used the 5-pin DIN to connect a keyboard to the system unit but the
smaller 6-pin mini-DIN also known as PS/2 interface has replaced this technology. Currently,
most desktop computers come with two PS/2 ports, one for mouse and the other for the
keyboard.
Figure 8: 5-pin DIN and PS/2 ports
Video Graphic Array (VGA) interface
A Video Graphic Array (VGA) interface is used to connect a monitor or a data projector. It is
shaped like letter D with 15 pins.
Figure 9: 15-pin video port
Audio Interface
Audio interface jacks are used to connect speakers and microphones. By convention, the sound
output jack is color in green while that of sound input is in pink.
Firewire interface
Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmit data faster than USB. It is
mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.
The table below shows a list of ports and their corresponding standard symbols.
Figure 10: ports and standard symbols
