Algebraic Structures

Definition

An algebraic structure is a set equipped with one or more operations (like addition or
multiplication) that satisfy certain axioms or rules. They form the foundation of abstract
algebra and are used to study patterns, symmetry, number systems, and structures in
mathematics and cryptography.

Basic Components of an Algebraic Structure

An algebraic structure is typically defined as: ¿

Where:

 S is a set (e.g., numbers, matrices, functions)

 ∗ is a binary operation on the set (e.g., +, ×)

Different algebraic structures are defined based on:

 The number of operations

 The properties those operations satisfy

Significance

Algebraic structures—such as groups, rings, and fields—are fundamental to modern

cryptography. Their mathematical properties are used to design secure algorithms and
prove cryptographic protocols' correctness and strength. Here's a breakdown of their
significance:

1. Groups

A group is a set with an operation satisfying closure, associativity, identity, and invertibility.

Significance in Cryptography:

 Public-Key Cryptography (e.g., RSA, Diffie-Hellman) relies on group operations.

 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo a

prime.

 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is based on the group of points on an elliptic

curve.

Why groups?
They allow defining one-way functions: easy to compute but hard to reverse—key to
encryption.
2. Rings

A ring is a set, with two operations (addition and multiplication) satisfying certain
properties (e.g., integers form a ring).

Significance in Cryptography:

 Used in lattice-based cryptography, such as Ring-LWE (Learning With Errors).

 Homomorphic Encryption schemes often work over rings to support arithmetic on

ciphertexts.

 RSA operates over rings like ℤ/nℤ (integers modulo n).

3. Fields

A field is a ring where every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse (e.g., ℤ/pℤ for
prime p).

Significance in Cryptography:

 Finite fields (Galois fields) are used in AES, Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Reed–
Solomon error correction, and stream ciphers.

 Allow division operations, which are crucial for modular inverses in algorithms.

4. Elliptic Curves (Special Group Structures)

 Define a group over a field using the geometry of curves.

 Used in Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) for efficient, secure key exchange and
digital signatures.

 Smaller key sizes with equivalent security (e.g., 256-bit ECC ≈ 3072-bit RSA).

5. Hard Mathematical Problems (Based on Algebraic Structures)

Many cryptographic schemes rely on problems assumed to be hard:

 Discrete Logarithm Problem in groups

 Integer Factorization in rings

 Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem

 Lattice problems in rings (e.g., Ring-LWE)

These underpin security—without these algebraic foundations, the cryptographic

guarantees would fail.
6. Proofs, Protocols, and Zero-Knowledge

Algebraic structures support:

 Zero-knowledge proofs: proving knowledge without revealing it (used in zk-

SNARKs, blockchain).

 Commitment schemes, digital signatures, oblivious transfer—all have algebraic

bases.

Algebraic Structure Cryptographic Use

Groups Key exchange (DH), ECC, signatures

Rings RSA, Lattice-based crypto, Homomorphic encryption

Fields AES, ECC, Error correction, Inverses

Elliptic Curves ECC (high security, low key size)

Hard Problems Security assumptions for protocols

Algebraic structures provide the language, tools, and security foundations for
cryptography. Understanding them is essential for designing, analyzing, and implementing
secure cryptographic systems.

Group Definition

A group is a mathematical structure that consists of a set of elements together with an

operation that combines any two elements to form a third element while satisfying certain
conditions.

A group is a set G along with an operation ∗ (often referred to as "multiplication" or

"addition") that satisfies the following four conditions:

 Closure: For any two elements a and b in the set G, the result of the operation a ∗ b
must also be in G.

 Associativity: The operation must be associative, meaning (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)

(a * b) for all elements a, b, and c in G.

 Identity Element: There must be an element e in G such that for every element a in
G, a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a. This is called the identity element.

 Inverse Element: For every element a in G, there exists an element b in G such that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e, where e is the identity element. Element b is called the inverse of a.
Note: If the operation is commutative (i.e., a ∗ b=b ∗ a for all a and b in G), the group is
called an Abelian group.

Finite Group

 If a group has finite number of elements, it is referred as a finite Group.

 Number of elements in the group is called the order of the group.

Examples of Group

Some examples of group include:

 Integers under addition (Z, + )

 Real numbers under addition ( R, +)

 Non-zero real numbers under multiplication ( R∗, × )

Example Problem:

Prove that integers under addition (Z, +) is an Abelian group

Solution

To prove that the set of integers under addition, denoted by (Z, +), forms a group, we must
verify the group axioms:

1. Closure

Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then a + b is also an integer.
Closure holds

2. Associativity

Addition of integers is associative. That is, for all a, b, c ∈Z:

(a + b) +c=a+ (b + c)

Associativity holds

3. Identity Element

The identity element ‘e’ must satisfy a + e=e + a=a.

Let e=0. Then for all a ∈ Z, a+0 = 0+a = a

Identity element exists and is 0

4. Inverse Element
For every a ∈ Z, there exists b ∈ Z such that a + b = b + a = 0.
Let b =−a, then:

a+(-a) =0

Since −a ∈ Z, every integer has an inverse.

Inverse exists for all elements

All four group axioms are satisfied. Therefore, (Z, +) is a group.

5. Commutative law

for every a, b ∈ Z, (a + b) = (b + a) ∈ Z

Since commutative law holds, this group is also an Abelian group

Ring Definition

A ring (R, +, ⋅ ) is a set R together with two binary operations + (addition) and ⋅
(multiplication) such that:

Additive Group: (R, +) is an abelian group. This means:

 Closure under addition: a + b ∈ R.

 Associativity of addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

 Additive identity: There exists an element 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a.

 Additive inverse: For every a ∈ R, there exists − a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0.

 Commutativity of addition: a + b = b + a.

Multiplication: The multiplication operation ( ⋅ ) satisfies:

 Closure: For all a, b ∈R, a ⋅ b ∈R.

 Associativity: (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c=a ⋅ (b ⋅ c) for all a, b, c ∈R.

Distributive Property: Multiplication distributes over addition:

 Left distributivity: a ⋅ ( b + c) = (a ⋅ b) + (a ⋅ c) for all a, b, c ∈R.

 Right distributivity: (a + b) ⋅ c = (a ⋅ c) + (b ⋅ c) for all a, b, c ∈R.

Note:

 Some rings have a multiplicative identity element (denoted by 1) such that a ⋅ 1 = 1 ⋅ a

= a. Such rings are called rings with unity.
  If the multiplication operation is commutative (i.e., a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a for all a, b € R), the
ring is called a commutative ring.

Examples of Ring

Some examples of ring include:

 Integers (Z, +, ⋅): The set of integers Z under standard addition and multiplication is
a commutative ring with unity (1 is the multiplicative identity).

 Polynomials R[x]: The set of polynomials with real coefficients forms

a commutative ring under the usual addition and multiplication of polynomials.

Field Definition

A field (F, +, ⋅) is a set F together with two binary operations + (addition) and ⋅
(multiplication) such that:

Additive Group: (F, +) forms an Abelian group under addition. This means:

 Closure under addition: a + b ∈ F.

 Associativity of addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

 Additive identity: There exists an element 0∈F such that a + 0 = a.

 Additive inverse: For every a ∈ F, there exists -a ∈ F such that a + (−a) = 0.

 Commutativity of addition: a + b = b + a.

Multiplication Forms an Abelian Group (excluding zero): The set F forms an Abelian
group under multiplication:

 Closure under multiplication: a ⋅ b ∈ F.

 Associativity of multiplication: (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c).

 Multiplicative identity: There exists an element 1∈F1, distinct from 0, such that a ⋅
1=a.

 Multiplicative inverse: For every a ∈ F, there exists a−1∈F such that a ⋅ a−1=1.

 Commutativity of multiplication: a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a.

Distributive Property: Multiplication distributes over addition:

 a ⋅ (b + c) = (a ⋅ b) + (a ⋅ c).

 (a + b) ⋅ c = (a ⋅ c) + (b ⋅ c)

Note: If a ⋅ b=0, then either a=0 or b=0. (as multiplication forms abelian group excluding 0)
Examples of Fields

Some examples of fields are:

 Rational Numbers (Q): The set of rational numbers with the usual operations of
addition and multiplication forms a field.

 Real Numbers (R): The set of real numbers forms a field under the usual addition
and multiplication.

 Complex Numbers (C): The set of complex numbers forms a field under the usual
operations of addition and multiplication.

Example problem:

Prove that (Z17, +, ⋅) is a field

Solution:

Here Z17 is nothing but the residue set of modulo 17 under addition (+) and multiplication
(⋅) operation. So, Z17 = {0, 1, 2, 3, …, 16}.

To prove that (Z17,+,⋅) is a field, we must rigorously verify that this algebraic structure
satisfies all field axioms under addition and multiplication modulo 17.

Definition of a Field

A set F with two operations (addition + and multiplication ·) is a field if:

1. (Z17, +) is an Abelian group

2. (Z17 ∖{0} ,⋅) is an abelian group { Z17 ∖{0} is Z17 without {0} element}

3. Distributive law holds:

a ⋅ ( b +c )=a ⋅ b+a ⋅c , ∀ a , b , c ∈ Z 17

Step 1: We must prove that (Z17, +) is an Abelian Group under addition (+) operation

We verify the group axioms under mod 17 addition:

 Closure: For any a, b ∈ Z17, (a + b) mod 17 ∈ Z17

 Associativity: (a +b) +c ≡ a+(b + c) mod 17

 Identity: 0 is the additive identity since a+0≡a

 Inverses: For every a ∈ Z17 , −a mod 17 ∈ Z17

 Commutativity: (a + b) ≡ (b + a) mod 17
So (Z17, +) is an Abelian group

Step 2: We must prove that (Z17 ∖ {0} ,⋅) is an Abelian group under multiplication (·)
operation

Now we check Abelian group axioms under multiplication modulo 17 (excluding 0)

Closure:

For any a , b ∈ Z 17 ∖ \{ 0 \} a ⋅b mod 17 ∈ Z17 ∖ \{ 0 \}

Associativity:

Multiplication of integers is associative; the property holds modulo 17:

( a ⋅b ) ⋅ c ≡ a ⋅ ( b ⋅c ) mod 17

Identity:

1 is the multiplicative identity: a ⋅1 ≡ a mod 17

Inverses:

We must show every a ∈ Z 17 ∖ \{ 0 \} has a multiplicative inverse mod 17.

Since 17 is prime, every 1 ≤ a<17 is co-prime to 17, so an inverse exists by Extended

Euclidean Algorithm

Commutativity:

Multiplication mod 17 is commutative: a ⋅b ≡ b ⋅a mod 1 7

So (Z17 \ {0} , ⋅) is an Abelian group

Step 3: We must prove that distributive law is satisfied under modulo 17

multiplication operation

For all a , b , c ∈ Z 17 a ⋅ ( b +c ) ≡ a ⋅b+ a ⋅c mod 17

This follows from the distributive property of integers and holds under mod 17 arithmetic.

So distributivity holds

Since

 ¿ is an Abelian group
 ( Z 17 ∖ \{ 0 \} , ⋅) is an Abelian group
 Multiplication distributes over addition

we conclude that ( Z 17 ,+, ⋅ ) is a field