ART AND DESIGN

AESTHETICS
ENDTERM ASSIGNMENT
“Ancient to Modern Aesthetics”

Shruthi Niveditha Hari

BD/20/802
FP Batch 2

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PLAGIARISM REPORT

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Average Plagiarism is 2.5%

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 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................... 05
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................06
INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT ROME ................................. 06
ROMAN ART ..............................................................................07
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ...................................................... 08
ROMAN SCULPTURE .............................................................. 15
POMPEII .................................................................................... 18
ROMAN PAINTINGS ................................................................ 21
BYZANTINE ART ..................................................................... 25
ROMANESQUE ART ................................................................ 28
GOTHIC ART ............................................................................. 29
RENAISSANCE ART ................................................................ 30
BAROQUE ART ........................................................................ 33
MODERN ART .......................................................................... 34
CUBISM ..................................................................................... 35
POP ART .................................................................................... 36
INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART ........................................ 37
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ........................................................40
CONCLUSION ........................................................................... 47
REFERENCES ............................................................................ 48

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my special thanks to my Art and Design Aesthetics Faculty

Mr.V.R. Karthikeyarayan who gave me guidance and helped me to

know about the subject. I had made this report from my heart and

shown utmost sincerity to complete it. I am very thankful to all those

people who helped me and guided me to make such a report. I also

thank my parents who have provided me all the resources required to

make this report.

Shruthi Niveditha Hari

BD/20/802

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 • INTRODUCTION:
Art has seen considerable number of changes since the start of your
time. The humanities in education inspire considerable commitment
and keenness. However, this is often not always matched by clarity of
understanding. During this report we attempt to sum up one potential
topic – aesthetic achievements from Ancient Rome’s era to current
times supported the valuation of varied architectures, paintings and
artefacts from the respective periods. The report also focuses on
various art movements and towards the end, it focuses on the
achievements in Indian art and architecture.

• INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT ROME:

In legend, Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by Romulus, its first
king. In 509 B.C.E. Rome became a republic ruled by the Senate and
thus the Roman people. The Roman Republic absorbed many aspects
of first Classical then Hellenistic art. However, it never lost its
distinctive character, especially notable in such fields as architecture,
portraiture, and historical relief. The Republic collapsed in civil
war and thus the Roman Empire began. The empire, because it could
now be called, enjoyed unparalleled prosperity because the network
of cities boomed, and goods, people and ideas moved freely by land
and sea. Many of the masterpieces associated with Roman art, just
like the mosaics and wall paintings of Pompeii, gold and silver
tableware, and glass, including the Portland Vase, were created
during this era. The empire ushered in an economic and social
revolution that changed the face of the Roman world: service to the
empire and the emperor, not just birth and social status, became the
key to advancement. Successive emperors, like Tiberius and Claudius,
expanded Rome's territory. By the time of the emperor Trajan, within
the late first century C.E., the Roman Empire, with about fifty million
inhabitants, encompassed the whole of the Mediterranean, Britain,
much of northern and central Europe and thus the Near East.

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 • INTRODUCTION TO ROMAN ART:
Ancient Roman art is a very broad topic, spanning almost 1,000 years
and three continents, from Europe into Africa and Asia. Its unique
cultural achievements include the invention of the dome and the groin
vault, the development of concrete and a European-wide network of
roads and bridges. Despite this, Roman sculptors and painters
produced only a limited amount of outstanding original fine art,
preferring instead to recycle designs from Greek art, which they
revered as far superior to their own. Indeed, many types of art
practised by the Romans - including, sculpture, fine art painting, and
decorative art (including metalwork, mosaics, jewellery, ivory
carving) had already been fully mastered by Ancient Greek artists. Of
course, it is wrong to say that Roman art was devoid of innovation: its
urban architecture was ground-breaking, as was its landscape painting
and portrait busts. But on the whole, we can say that Roman art was
predominantly derivative and, above all, utilitarian.

Fig 1: Ancient Roman Art

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 • ROMAN ARCHITECTURE:
Roman architecture was unlike anything that had come before. The
Persians, Egyptians, Greeks and Etruscans all had monumental
architecture. Roman architecture differed fundamentally from this
tradition due to the discovery, experimentation and exploitation of
concrete, arches and vaulting. Romans were able to create interior
spaces that had previously been unheard of. Romans became
increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than filling
it with structural supports. As a result, the inside of Roman buildings
was as impressive as their exteriors. It was during the age of (98-117
CE) and (117-138 CE) that Rome reached the zenith of its
architectural glory, attained through numerous building programs of
monuments, baths, aqueducts, palaces, temples and mausoleums.
Many of the buildings from this era and later, served as models for
architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Filippo Brunelleschi,
Donato Bramante and Michelangelo.

Fig 2: Ancient Roman Architecture

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 • AQUEDUCTS & BRIDGES:
These sometimes-massive structures, with single, double, or triple
tiers of arches, were designed to carry fresh water to urban centres
from sources sometimes many kilometres away. The earliest in Rome
was the Aqua Appia (312 BCE), but the most impressive example is
undoubtedly the Pont du Gard near Nimes (c. 14 CE). Roman bridges
could make similar use of the arch to span rivers and ravines.
Constructed with a flat wooden superstructure over stone piers or
arches, examples still survive today. One of the best preserved is the
granite Tagus Bridge at Alcantara (106 CE) which has arches
spanning over 30 metres.

Fig 3: Pont du Gard Aqueduct

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 • BASILICAS:
The basilica was adopted by the Christian church but was conceived
by the Romans as a place for any large gathering, with the most
common use being law courts. They were usually built along one side
of the forum, the city’s marketplace, which was enclosed on all sides
by colonnades. The basilica's long hall and roof were supported by
columns and piers on all sides. The columns created a central nave
flanked on all sides by an aisle. A gallery ran around the first floor
and later there was an apse at one or both ends.
• TEMPLES:
The Roman temple was a combination of the Etruscan and Greek
models with an inner cella at the rear of the building surrounded by
columns and placed on a raised platform (up to 3.5 metres high) with
a stepped entrance and columned porch, the focal point of the
building (in contrast to Greek temples where all four sides could be
equally important in the urban landscape). Temples were usually
rectangular but could take other forms such as circular or polygonal.

Fig 4: Ruins of Ancient Temples of Rome

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 • THE COLOSSEUM:
The Colosseum is the main symbol of Rome. The construction of the
Colosseum began in the year 72 under the empire of Vespasian and
was finished in the year 80 during the rule of the emperor Titus. After
completion, the Colosseum became the greatest Roman amphitheatre,
measuring 188 meters in length, 156 meters in width and 57 meters in
height. Unlike earlier amphitheatres, which were nearly all dug into
convenient hillsides for extra support, the Colosseum is a freestanding
structure of stone and concrete, using a complex system of barrel
vaults and groin vaults. The main structural framework and facade are
travertine, the secondary walls are volcanic tufa, and the inner bowl
and the arcade vaults are concrete.
The Colosseum was the scene of thousands of hand-to-hand combats
between gladiators, of contests between men and animals, and of
many larger combats, including mock naval engagements. It has long
been one of Rome’s major tourist attractions, receiving close to seven
million visitors annually.

Fig 5: The Colosseum

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Fig 6: Interiors of the Colosseum
• THE ARCH OF TITUS:
The Arch of Titus is a Roman Triumphal Arch which was erected by
Domitian in c. 81 CE. The arch was constructed using Pentelic
marble, with the attic part in Luna marble. With only a single opening
the arch is smaller and more modest in its decoration. The marble
reliefs are set on either side of the inner arch. One panel shows the
start of Titus' 71 CE victory triumph procession. The other relief
panel is carved in three-quarter view and has Titus riding a four-horse
chariot and shows him being crowned by a personification of Victory.
The two relief panels are significant in the history and development of
Roman art, as they are the first full attempt by Roman sculptors to
create the illusion of space. This is successfully achieved in several
ways; the figures are portrayed in three-quarter view, the background
figures are so rendered that they recede gradually into the distance,
the central figures are carved in higher relief than those on the edges,
and the whole panel is curved slightly inwards.
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Fig 7: Arch of Titus

Fig 8: Leon’s Message, Arch of Titus

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 • THE PANTHEON:
The Pantheon in Rome is a true architectural wonder. Described as
the “sphinx of the Campus Martius”—referring to enigmas presented
by its appearance and history, and to the location in Rome where it
was built. The structure, completed around 126-128 A.D. during the
reign of Emperor Hadrian, features a rotunda with a massive domed
ceiling that was the largest of its kind when it was built. Made
primarily from bricks and concrete, the Pantheon consists of three
sections: a portico with granite columns, a massive domed rotunda
and a rectangular area connecting the other two sections. Measuring
142 feet in diameter, the domed ceiling was the largest of its kind
when it was built. At to the top of the dome sits an opening, or oculus,
27 feet in width. The walls and floor of the rotunda are decorated with
marble and gilt and the domed ceiling contains five rings of 28
rectangular coffers. When the artist Michelangelo saw the Pantheon,
he reportedly said it was the design of angels, not of man.

Fig 9: The Pantheon, Rome, c. 125

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 • ROMAN SCULPTURE:
With artists from across a huge empire and changing public tastes
over centuries, is above all else, remarkable for its sheer variety and
eclectic mix. The art form blended the idealised perfection of earlier
Classical Greek sculpture with a greater aspiration for realism and
absorbed artistic preferences and styles from the East to create images
in stone and bronze which rank among the finest works from
antiquity. In its important works, at least, there was a constant
expression of seriousness, with none of the Greek conceptualism or
introspection. The mood, pose and facial features of the Roman statue
of an Emperor, for instance, was typically solemn and unsmiling.
Another important characteristic of Rome's plastic art was its realism.
The highly detailed reliefs on Trajan's Column and the Column of
Marcus Aurelius, for instance, are perfect illustrations of this focus on
accurate representation.

Fig 10: Ancient Roman Sculpture

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 • TRAJAN’S COLUMN:
The greatest relief sculpture of Ancient Rome, Trajan's Column is a
125-foot Doric-style monument, designed by the architect
Apollodorus of Damascus. It has a spiral frieze that winds 23 times
around its shaft, commemorating the Dacian triumphs of Emperor
Trajan. In these reliefs, the attempt is made to record the whole
history of Trajan's two campaigns against the Dacians from the
crossing of the Danube to the final victory. Everywhere the Emperor
is prominent; he appears some ninety times in the 660 feet of the
sculptured band. Sculpted in the cool, balanced style of the 2nd
century, its composition and extraordinarily meticulous detail makes
it one of the finest reliefs in the history of sculpture.

Fig 11: Trajan’s column

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Fig 12: Detail of Trajan's Column

• FUNERARY SCULPTURE:
As Rome turned from cremation to burial at the end of the 1st century
CE, stone coffins, known as sarcophagi, were much in demand. All
were carved and usually decorated with sculpture - in this case reliefs.
The most expensive sarcophagi were carved from marble, though
other stone was also used, as was wood and even lead. In addition to a
range of different depictions of the deceased - such as Etruscan-style
full-length sculptural portraits of the person reclining on a sofa –
popular motifs used by sculptors included episodes from Roman (or
Greek) mythology, as well as genre and hunting scenes, and garlands
of fruit and leaves. Towards the end of the Roman Empire, sarcophagi
became an important medium for Christian-Roman Art.

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 • POMPEII:
Pompeii, preserved ancient Roman city in Campania, Italy, at the
southeastern base of Mount Vesuvius. Pompeii was destroyed by the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. The ruins at Pompeii were
first discovered late in the 16th century by the architect Domenico
Fontana. Pompeii was divided into nine regions; the insulae (blocks)
in each region were numbered, and each door on the street was given
a number so that each house could be conveniently located by three
numerals.

Fig 13: Streets in Pompeii

The city of Pompeii was shaped irregularly because it was built on a
prehistoric lava flow. The public buildings are for the most part
grouped in three areas: the Forum, located in the large level area on
the southwest; the Triangular Forum, standing on a height at the edge
of the south wall overlooking the bay; and the Amphitheatre and
Palaestra, in the east. The large basilica, with its main room
surrounded on four sides by a corridor, is the most architecturally
significant building in the city.
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Fig 14: Remains of the city of Pompeii

To the west was the Temple of Venus Pompeiana, patron deity of

Pompeii. Across from the basilica was the Temple of Apollo, one of
the earliest in the city. The Triangular Forum is the site of the Doric
Temple, the oldest temple in Pompeii. But more significant than the
public buildings, are the hundreds of private homes. These are unique,
for only at Pompeii is it possible to trace the history of Italic and
Roman domestic architecture for at least four centuries. The earliest
houses date from the first Samnite period (4th– 3rd century BCE).
The most luxurious houses were built during the second Samnite
period (200– 80 BCE). Many of the houses from this period were
decorated with elaborate floor mosaics. The city today is an open-air
museum dedicated to the experience of walking through an ancient
Roman town. And while the houses and wall paintings from the last
phase of Pompeii are what attracts the most visitors, the city’s
complex social and building history, as well as the urban
infrastructure, are worth noting as well.

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Fig 15: Amphitheatre, Pompeii.

Fig 16: House of Vettii, Pompeii, Italy

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 • ROMAN PAINTINGS:
The history of Roman painting is essentially a history of wall
paintings on plaster. Although ancient literary references inform us of
Roman paintings on wood, ivory, and other materials, works that have
survived are in the durable medium of fresco that was used to adorn
the interiors of private homes in Roman cities and in the countryside.
In Rome, the highest form of painting was panel painting. Executed
using the encaustic or tempera methods, panel paintings were mass-
produced in their thousands for display in offices and public buildings
throughout the empire. The best surviving example from the art of
Classical Antiquity is probably the "Severan Tondo", a portrait of
Roman Empero Septimus Severus with his family, painted in tempera
on a circular wood panel.

Fig 17: Ancient Roman Painting

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Another best example from the Roman Empire is the astonishing
series of Fayum Mummy portraits painted in Egypt during the period
50 BCE to 250 CE.

Fig 18: The Fayum Mummy portraits series

• TRIUMPHAL PAINTINGS:
Roman artists were also frequently commissioned to produce pictures
highlighting military successes - a form known as Triumphal
Painting. This type of history painting - usually executed as a mural
painting in fresco - would depict the battle or campaign in meticulous
detail, and might incorporate mixed-media adornments and map
designs to inform and impress the public.

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 • MURALS:
Roman murals - executed either "al fresco" with paint being applied
to wet plaster, or "al secco" using paint on dry walls - are usually
classified into four periods, as set out by the German archaeologist
August Mau following his excavations at Pompeii.
• The First Style (c.200-80 BCE)
Also known as incrustation or masonry style, it derived from
Hellenistic palaces in the Middle East. Using vivid colours, it
simulates the appearance of marble.
• The Second Style (c.80 BCE - 100 CE)
This aimed to create the illusion of extra space by painting pictures
with significant depth, such as views overlooking a garden or other
landscape. In time, the style developed to cover the entire wall,
creating the impression that one was looking out of a room onto a real
scene.

Fig 19: Example of First Style painting, Pompeii

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• The Third Style (c.100-200)
This was more ornamental with less illusion of depth. The wall was
divided into precise zones, using pictures of columns or foliage.
Scenes painted in the zones were typically either exotic
representations of real or imaginary animals, or merely
monochromatic linear drawings.
• The Fourth Style (c.200-400)
This was a mixture of the previous two styles. Depth returned to the
mural but it was executed more decoratively, with greater use of
ornamentation. For example, the artist might paint several windows
which, instead of looking out onto a landscape or cityscape, showed
scenes from Greek myths or other fantasy scenes, including still life.

Fig 20: Example of Third Style painting

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 • THE RISE OF BYZANTINE ART:
Byzantine art (4th - 15th century CE) is generally characterised by a
move away from the naturalism of the Classical tradition towards the
more abstract and universal, there is a definite preference for two-
dimensional representations, and those artworks which contain a
religious message predominate. Using bright stones, gold mosaics,
lively wall paintings, intricately carved ivory, and precious metals in
general, Byzantine artists beautified everything from buildings to
books, and their greatest and most lasting legacy is undoubtedly the
icons which continue to decorate Christian churches around the
world.

Fig 21: Byzantine Art

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 • BYZANTINE MOSAICS:
The majority of surviving wall and ceiling mosaics depict religious
subjects and are to be found in many Byzantine churches. One of their
characteristics is the use of gold tiles to create a shimmering
background to the figures of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints. The
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul) contains the most
celebrated examples of such mosaics while one of the most unusually
striking portraits in the medium is that of Jesus Christ in the dome of
Daphni in Greece. Produced around 1100 CE, it shows Christ with a
rather fierce expression which is in contrast to the usual
expressionless representation.

Fig 22: Mosaic of Jesus Christ in a Cathedral Dome

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 • BYZANTINE ICONS:
Icons - representations of holy figures - were created for veneration
by Byzantine Christians from the 3rd century CE. They are most often
seen in mosaics, wall paintings, and as small artworks made from
wood, metal, gemstones, enamel, or ivory. The most common form
was small painted wooden panels which could be carried or hung on
walls. Such panels were made using the encaustic technique where
coloured pigments were mixed with wax and burned into the wood as
an inlay. The subject in icons is typically portrayed full frontal, with
either the full figure shown or the head and shoulders only.

Fig 23: Byzantine icon

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 • ROMANESQUE ART:
The first major movement of Medieval art, the style known as
"Romanesque" can be used to cover all derivations of Roman
architecture in the West, from the fall of Rome (c.450 CE) until the
advent of the Gothic style around 1150. Combining features of
Roman and Byzantine buildings along with other local traditions,
Romanesque architecture is distinguished by massive quality, thick
walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers, and
decorative arcades. Each building has clearly defined forms and a
symmetrical plan, resulting in a much simpler appearance than the
Gothic buildings that would follow. Aside from architecture, the art of
the period was characterized by a vigorous style in both painting and
sculpture. In churches, painting continued to follow Byzantine
iconographic models. Christ in Majesty, the Last Judgement and
scenes from the Life of Christ remained among the most common
depictions. Stained glass first came to wide use during this period.

Fig 24: Romanesque Art

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 • GOTHIC ART:
Gothic art evolved from Romanesque art and lasted from the mid-
12th century to as late as the end of the 16th century in some areas.
Gothic architecture is unique in that we can pinpoint the exact place,
the exact moment, and the exact person who developed it. Ratios
became essential to French Gothic cathedrals because they expressed
the perfection of the universe created by God. This is where we also
see stained glass emerge in Gothic architecture. The windows were
instructional in theology during the Gothic era, and the light itself was
a metaphor for the presence of God. Illuminated manuscripts provide
excellent examples of Gothic painting. A prayer book, known as the
book of hours, became increasingly popular during the Gothic age and
was treated as a luxury item. These paintings display an emphasis on
flowing, curving lines, minute detail, and refined decoration, and gold
was often applied to the panel as background color.

Fig 25: Gothic Architecture

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 • RENAISSANCE ART:
The Renaissance began during the 14th century and remained the
dominate style in Italy, and in much of Europe, until the 16th century.
During the Early Renaissance, artists began to reject the Byzantine
style of religious painting and strove to create realism in their
depiction of the human form and space. During the Early Renaissance
we also see important developments in subject matter, in addition to
style. While religion was an important element in the daily life of
people living during the Renaissance, and remained a driving factor
behind artistic production, we also see a new avenue open to
panting— mythological subject matter. Florentine and other Tuscan
artists such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio and Andrea
Mantegna, instigated a series of discoveries and improvements in all
the visual arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), which effectively
revolutionized the face of public and private art in Italy and beyond.

Fig 26: Early Renaissance Art

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 • HIGH RENAISSANCE ART:
The period known as the High Renaissance represents the culmination
of the goals of the Early Renaissance, namely the realistic
representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and
in an appropriately decorous style. The most well-known artists from
this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian, and Michelangelo.
Their paintings and frescoes are among the most widely known works
of art in the world. Da Vinci’s Last Supper, Raphael’s The School of
Athens and Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling paintings are the
masterpieces of this period and embody the elements of the High
Renaissance.

Fig 29: High Renaissance Art by Raphael

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Fig 28: Raphael Sanzio’s Work of Renaissance

Fig 29: Another work in the Raphael Sanzio series

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 • BAROQUE ART:
The Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in
Rome, Italy, and spread throughout the majority of Europe during the
17th and 18th centuries. In informal usage, the word baroque
describes something that is elaborate and highly detailed. The
Baroque style is characterized by exaggerated motion and clear detail
used to produce drama, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture,
painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. Baroque
iconography was direct, obvious, and dramatic, intending to appeal
above all to the senses and the emotions. The use of the chiaroscuro
technique is a well-known trait of Baroque art. This technique refers
to the interplay between light and dark and is often used in paintings
of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic
atmosphere. The chiaroscuro technique is visible in the painting.

Fig 30: Baroque Art

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 • MODERN ART (C.1870-1970):
There is no precise definition of the term "Modern Art": it remains an
elastic term, which can accommodate a variety of meanings. Modern
art is renowned for its avant-garde aesthetic and celebrated for its
forward-thinking artists. Starting with light and airy Impressionism
and ending with energetic Abstract Expressionism, the modern art
genre is composed of several major movements. Impressionism
dominated French painting until the turn of the century, with artists
like Monet, Pierre- Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas at the forefront.
Inspired by the artistic freedom introduced by the Impressionists,
artists like Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, and Henri
Toulouse- Lautrec began working in distinctive, unconventional
styles. This movement came to be known as post-Impressionism
which begun during the 1890s.

Fig 31: Modern Art Example

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 • CUBISM:
Cubism was one of the most influential visual art styles of the early
twentieth century. It was created by Pablo Picasso and Georges
Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914. The Cubist painters rejected
the inherited concept that art should copy nature, or that artists should
adopt the traditional techniques of perspective, modeling, and
foreshortening. They wanted instead to emphasize the two-
dimensionality of the canvas. So, they reduced and fractured objects
into geometric forms, and then realigned these within a shallow, relief
like space. They also used multiple or contrasting vantage points.
While Picasso and Braque are credited with creating this new visual
language, it was adopted and further developed by many painters,
including Fernand Léger, Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Juan Gris,
Roger de la Fresnaye, Marcel Duchamp, Albert Gleizes, Jean
Metzinger, and
even Diego
Rivera. Though
primarily
associated with
painting,
Cubism also
exerted a
profound
influence on
twentieth-
century
sculpture and
architecture.

Fig 32: Pablo

Picasso’s
Cubism Art

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 • POP ART:
Pop art is a movement that emerged in the mid-20th century in which
artists incorporated commonplace objects—comic strips, soup cans,
newspapers, and more—into their work. The Pop art movement aimed
to solidify the idea that art can draw from any source, and there is no
hierarchy of culture to disrupt this. Pop art began in the mid-1950s in
Britain by a group of painters, sculptors, writers, and critics called
Independent Group. The movement spread quickly, and many believe
that U.K. Pop pioneer Richard Hamilton‘s 1956 collage Just what is it
that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing? marked the
official beginning of the cultural phenomenon after it appeared in
Whitechapel Gallery in London. Pop art is easily recognizable due to
its vibrancy and unique characteristics that are present in many of the
most iconic works of the movement. Humor was one of the main
components of Pop art. Artists use the subject matter to make a
statement about current events, poke fun at fads, and challenge the
status quo.

Fig 33: 20th Century Pop Art

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 • INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART:
Indian art originated about five thousand years ago, sometime during
the peak of the Indus Valley civilization. Largely influenced by a
civilization that came into existence in the 3rd M. BCE, it blends the
spiritual and the sensual, making it rather distinctive in form and
appearance. However, as time passed, Indian art has undergone
several transformations and has been influenced by various cultures,
making it more diverse, yet more inclusive of its people as well.
• THE FRESCOES OF AJANTA:
Ajanta Caves are famous for their murals which are the finest
surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting. Some of the
magnificent paintings, for which Ajanta is world-famous, can be seen
in Caves 1,2,9,10,16 and 17. They depict episodes from the life of the
Buddha, and scenes from the Jataka tales which relate to the Buddha's
previous incarnations as a Bodhisattva. The sculptures, on the facade
of some of the caves and in the shrines contain superb images of the
Buddha. More remarkable among these is the one depicting the
Buddha's Mahaparinirvana - his ultimate release from the cycle of
rebirth, in Cave 26, evoking a sense of awe and reverence.

Fig 34: Paintings showcasing sensuous beauty

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 • FRESCO PAINTINGS OF SHEKHAWATI (RAJASTHAN):
Fresco wall paintings of Shekhawati are unique in themselves. Wall
paintings in Shekhawati boomed only after Mughal power was
declined. For the early corpus, the artist heavily depended on
traditional Indian subjects. This consisted of scenes from mythology,
especially of Lord Krishna, local legends, animals, daily lives of men
and women, etc. The paintings were depicted in bright two-
dimensional paintings. The artists used only natural colours for their
art. Mixed in limewater and beaten into plaster, they remained vibrant
for almost as long as the building lasted. Besides popular love stories
such as Laila – Majnu and Heer – Ranjha, Shekhawati’s murals have
a recurrent theme of a couple astride a camel portraying Rajasthan’s
most popular romantic tale Dhola – Maru.

Fig 35: Fresco Paintings of Rajasthan

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 • KATHAKALI (KERALA):
‘Kathakali’, an important genre in the Indian classical dance form, is
associated with storytelling form of this art. Similar to other Indian
classical dance arts, the story in ‘Kathakali’ is also communicated to
audience through excellent footwork and impressive gestures of face
and hands complimented with music and vocal performance.
However, it can be distinguished from the others through the intricate
and vivid make-up, unique face masks and costumes worn by dancers
as also from their style and movements that reflect the age-old martial
arts and athletic conventions prevalent in Kerala and surrounding
regions. Its unique costume, accessories and make-up complimented
with spectacular performance, music and lightings bringing life to the
characters of the great epics and legends attracts and flabbergasts both
young and the old thus creating a surreal world around. Music plays a
significant role in this form of classical art creating variations of tones
setting and corresponding to the mood of a particular scene.

Fig 36: Kathakali Art form performed on stage

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 • INDIAN ARCHITECTURE:
Indian Architecture has always been inquisitive due to its
magnanimity and the arty creations. Our country has a plethora of
monuments, baroque and modernistic buildings which echo the tales
of their era. India has seen a number of architectural styles which
developed the course of history. Different types of Indian
architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time,
transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a
result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have
evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across history.
• TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE:
Temple architecture has deep roots in India. It has developed in
almost all the regions in the country. Although the origins of the style
are the same, we can see a substantial differentiation and variety of
architectural styles in temple construction. Primarily, the Indian
temple architecture has been classified into three broad types, namely;
Nagara, Vesara, and the Dravida. All these styles carry their unique
regional influences and lineages.

Fig 37: Styles of Temple Architecture

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 • DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE:
The temple is enclosed within a compound wall. It has a Gopuram
which is the entrance gateway in the centre of the front wall. At the
entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of fierce
dvarapalas guarding the temple. Subsidiary shrines could be found
wither within the main tower or beside the main tower. In many
temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower. It is also the
oldest. With the passage of time and the rise of the population of the
temple-town, additional boundary walls were added. The newest
structure would mostly have the tallest gopuram. Famous temple
towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai
and Kumbakonam.

Fig 38: Interiors of Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai, Tamilnadu

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Fig 39 & 40: Dravidian Style Architecture

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 • MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE:
The Mughal architectural style has emerged out of a unique blend of
Islamic, Persian and Indian architectural styles. This style found its
roots from the 16th century and continued to have a prominence till
the beginning of 18th century. Mughal architecture reached its zenith
during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahān (1628–58), its crowning
achievement being the magnificent Taj Mahal. This period is marked
by a fresh emergence in India of Persian features that had been seen
earlier in the tomb of Humāyūn. The use of the double dome, a
recessed archway inside a rectangular fronton, and parklike
surroundings are all typical of the Shah Jahān period. Symmetry and
balance between the parts of a building were always stressed, while
the delicacy of detail in Shah Jahān decorative work has seldom been
surpassed. White marble was a favoured building material.

Fig 41: Mughal Architecture in various parts of India

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 • INDO-SARACENIC REVIVAL ARCHITECTURE:
Indo-Saracenic Revival was an architectural style mostly used by
British architects in India in the later 19th century, especially in
public and government buildings in the British Raj, and the palaces of
rulers of the princely states. It drew stylistic and decorative elements
from native Indo-Islamic architecture, especially Mughal architecture,
which the British regarded as the classic Indian style, and, less often,
Hindu temple architecture. The basic layout and structure of the
buildings tended to be close to that used in contemporary buildings in
other styles, such as Gothic revival and Neo-Classical, with specific
Indian features and decoration added.

Fig 42: Madras High Court

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 • KALINGA ARCHITECTURE:
The Kalinga architecture flourished in the ancient region of Kalinga.
This architectural style can still be seen in the eastern Indian state of
Odisha and the northern parts of Andhra Pradesh. Most prominently,
the Kalinga architectural style consists of three different types of
temples, i.e., Rekha Deula, Khakhara Deula, and Pidha Deula. The
diverse characteristics of the famous Kalinga architecture are;
architectural stipulations, historical connotations, and iconography,
which honours the custom, traditions, and legends which are
associated with the structures. A typical Kalinga temple consists two
parts, a sanctuary where an idol or linga is placed and a hall where
pilgrims can view the lord installed in the sanctuary. The sanctuary is
referred as deul while the hall is known as jagamohana.

Fig 43: Kalinga Architecture Example

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 • SIKH ARCHITECTURE:
Sikh architecture, style and design of building conspicuously popular
among the Sikhs, is owed primarily to their religious monuments.
Their secular edifices such as fortresses, palaces, samadhs havelis,
etc, are no different from the contemporary style which is generally a
mixture of Mughal and Rajput architecture. Compared to Hindu
temples, they are more and have, more often than not, entrance from
all four sides, and they are not oriented to any set direction as the
Muslim mosques are. The dome is usually painted in white or
sometimes in gold. Domes of some important gurdwaras are covered
with gold plated copper sheets. Some domes have been lined with
marble slabs or white or coloured porcelain pieces. Apart from the
large central dome there are often four other cupolas, one at each
corner and several small solid domes embellishing the parapet. The
dome is invariably topped by an ornate finial, the kalas.

Fig 44: Gurudwara Bangla Sahib, Delhi

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 • CONCLUSION:
Roman architecture, then, has provided us with magnificent structures
that have, quite literally, stood the test of time. By combining a wide
range of materials with daring designs, the Romans were able to push
the boundaries of physics and turn architecture into an art form. Even
more significantly, the Roman use of concrete, brick, and arches
twinned with building designs like the amphitheatre and basilica
would immeasurably influence all following western architecture
right up to the present day. The delicate frescoes which have
miraculously survived the ravages of time allow us to not only see for
ourselves the religious and cultural practices but they also allow us to
gaze at and admire the very same views that were likewise enjoyed by
a people separated from us in time by twenty centuries. In conclusion
we can say that art has evolved tremendously since the ancient era to
modern era. There has been continuous change in art styles and
movements with artists creating more and more innovative and
alluring artworks. All these works continue / will continue to serve as
an inspiration for the present as well as coming generations of artists
and artisans.

Fig 45: Islamic Art and Architecture

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artappreciation/chapter/reading-contemporary-art/
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