TOPIC 7

PLANT AND HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction is a type of reproduction involving only one parent, and which
produces offspring which are genetically identical to the parent. There is no fusion of
gametes or mixing of genetic information. The offspring are clones of the parent.

Sexual reproduction refers to the process of creating a new organism by the fusion of
male and female gametes. The fusion of the gametes results in the formation of a
zygote which further develops into a new organism. Organisms produced by sexual
reproduction have two parents and are genetically similar to both but not identical
to either.
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 1
COMPARISON OF ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Parents One Two

Mitosis forms either: Meiosis forms gametes (sperm and

a). reproductive bodies, eg. spores, ova) which fuse to form zygotes at
Method tubers; or fertilization
b) replicas of adult by outgrowth, Zygote grows by mitosis into new
eg. runners organism

Genetically identical to parent Not identical – half its genes are

Offspring maternal (mother’s) and half
paternal (father’s)

Maintains a good strain exactly Produces new varieties which, if

Advantage ‘better’, favour survival and in the
long-term their evolution

Species liable to be wiped out, eg. Excellent individuals, eg. prize

Disadvantage by disease, if not resistant to it cows, cannot give identical
offspring

Only one arrival needed to Both sexes needed

colonize a new area
Often more rapid than sexual Not rapid
methods
Other points Always increases population Need not increase population
(two parents may produce only
one offspring and then die)

Occurrence Very common among plants and Almost all plants and animals
simple animals, eg. Amoeba

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 2
ASEXUAL METHODS OF REPRODUCTION

All the offspring from one asexually-reproducing parent are known as a clone (a
genetically identical population)

1. Binary fission, eg. Amoeba, bacteria

2. Spores, eg. fungi, mosses

3. Budding, eg. tapeworm

4. Vegetative propogation by outgrowths of new plantelets usually from stems,

but sometimes from leaves. Many of these methods of asexual reproduction
also achieve perennation (survival over winter in a dormant state)

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 3
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Like mammals, flowering plants (angiosperms) are highly successful land organisms.

Less advanced plants, like mosses and ferns, depend on water for reproduction, in
which the male sex cells swim to reach the egg cell. Flowering plants can keep the
egg inside the female in a fluid environment and so do not need surrounding water
for reproduction.

However, since plants are immobile, they depend on external agencies for the
transmission of the male sex cells to the female sex cells.

The reproductive structures of flowering plants are the flowers.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants takes the following pattern:

Flowers are varied in shape and structure, but they all have the same basic plan.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 4
Flowers of most plants have both male and female sex organs (bisexual or
hermaphrodite).

Some species have unisexual flowers, either male or female.

In some species, eg. hazel, male and female flowers are present on the same plant.
In other species, eg. willow tree, male and female flowers are present on separate
plants.

Typical structure of a flower

In the following, the broad bean flower is taken as a typical flower.

The flower develops from the tip of the flower stalk called the receptacle.

The parts of the flower are arranged in 4 rings or whorls.

1. The calyx (sepals)
2. The corolla (petals)
3. The stamen (male sex organ)
4. The carpel (female sex organ)

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 5
1. The calyx
• The outermost whorl is called the calyx. It is made of 5 sepals, leaf-like
structures which protect the developing flower when it is still a bud.
• The sepals fold back when the flower blooms

2. The corolla
• The next inner whorl is called the corolla. It is made of 5 petals. Petals are
often coloured and scented and many have a nectary at the base.
• The nectary makes nectar for visiting insects (broad bean does not produce
nectar)

3. The stamens
• The male part of the flower contains a number of
stamens.
• Each stamen is made up of a filament supporting an
anther on its uppermost tip. The base of the filaments
are joined together to form a sheath round the ovary.
• Inside each anther there are a number of pollen sacs,
in which the pollen grains containing the male sex cells
develop.

4. The carpel
• The innermost whorl is the female
part of the flower.
• It is made up of the female
reproductive organ called the
carpel, which consists of a long,
narrow pod-shaped base called the
ovary above which is a narrow
region called the style.
• The style ends in a sticky platform
called the stigma. The stigma
receives the pollen grains during
pollination.
• Within the ovary there are varying
numbers of ovules.
• At the centre of each ovule is a
large cell called the embryo sac,
containing several nuclei, including
the female gamete.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 6
POLLINATION

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas.

If pollination occurs between anthers and stigmas of the same species, fertilization
occurs. When ‘accidental’ pollination occurs between different species, fertilization
does not occur.

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers of one plant to the
stigmas of another plant of the same species.

Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas of the same
flower, or between flowers on the same plant.

Most pollination mechanisms ensure cross-pollination. Self-pollination is usually

prevented, or if it occurs, usually does not result in fertilization. But in some
circumstances, it may occur, eg. when there is no other plant of the same species in
the vicinity, eg. dandelion

Self-pollination is usually prevented by:

• One reproductive organ develops before the other
• Reproductive organs are situated in different regions of the flower
• Having separate male and female flowers or plants

Cross-pollination occurs can occur in two ways, mainly depending on the

appearance of the flower: by insects or by wind
Insect-pollinated flowers
Both anthers and stigmas are well-protected inside the flower by large petals.

When the pollen grains have developed, the anthers split down one side, exposing
the pollen grains which remain stuck to the inside of the anthers.

If an insect visits a flower, attracted by scent, colour or nectar, it lands on a petal

and forces itself down the flower to get to the nectar at the bottom. In doing so, the
anthers brush against the insect’s body and pollen grains stick to it. If an insect had
visited another flower before, pollen grains from that flower may get stuck to the
sticky stigma further down the flower.
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 7
Wind-pollinated flowers
Both the anthers and stigmas hang out
of the flower so that pollen grains are
exposed to currents of air.

Sometimes an explosive mechanism

pushes the pollen grains a small
distance away from the flower, clear of
the flower’s own stigmas. The pollen
grains, being very light, travel under
forces of air currents. The large and
feathery stigmas act as a net to capture
any pollen that happen to be travelling
in the air.

Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

Insect Pollinated flowers Wind Pollinated flowers

Large, clearly visible flowers Small flowers

Flower faces upwards on a short stalk Flower hangs down for easy shaking

Large, brightly coloured petals Small petals, often green

May be scented Not scented

May have nectar Do not have nectar

Stamens and stigma inside the ring of Stamens and stigma hang out of the ring
petals of petals. Stigma has feathery branches
for catching pollen

Small number of large sticky pollen grains Large numbers of light pollen grains
produced to stick to insects’ bodies produced

Flowers of different species are usually Flowers of different species usually have
adapted to the particular insect which the same structures
usually pollinates that species

Example: Orchids, Wallflower Example: Grasses, cereals and many

trees

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 8
FERTILIZATION

After successful pollination, the following events take place:

1. Due to certain chemicals produced by the ovule, the pollen grains that fell on
the stigma grow pollen tubes down the style to the ovary, absorbing food from
the tissues of the style

2. Eventually one of the pollen tubes reaches the ovule and enters through a
small hole, the micropyle. The pollen tube forms a path for the male gamete
to reach the female gamete

3. The male gamete enters into the ovule and fertilization takes place. The male
and female gametes fuse to form a zygote.

4. Other male and female nuclei join to form the endosperm. This will develop to
form a mass of cells around the embryo inside the seed which will eventually
form the ‘food reserves’ (proteins and starch) which enable the seed to grow
before the first photosynthetic leaves develop.

After fertilization the function of the flower is over, so its presence is no longer
required. Most of its parts wither away and changes take place to produce the fruit,
while the ovule becomes the seed.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 9
Seed and Fruit formation

Once fertilization takes place, the ovule becomes the seed with the embryo inside it.
The ovary forms the fruit with the seeds inside it.

Inside the seed, the zygote divides mitotically to become an embryo plant (new
plant offspring) and cells differentiate into:
• A young root called the radicle which will form the root system of the new
plant
• A young shoot called the plumule which will form the shoot system of the new
plant
• One or two seed leaves called cotyledons, which will form the food reserves
for the embryo during its growth underground.

Remember: Monocotyledonous plants have one seed leaf, dicotyledonous plants

have two seed leaves. (The Fava bean is a dicot)

The membranes of the ovule harden and form a tough protective testa (seed coat)
around the embryo.

Note:
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 10
The seed is made up of an embryo and stored food, enclosed in a protective testa.
Most of the water is withdrawn out from the seed, making it hard and extremely
resistant to cold and adverse environmental conditions.

The fruit is formed from the ovary. The main functions of the fruit are:
• To protect the seed
• To aid in seed dispersal

The seed then enters into a state of dormancy. It uses up very little food and can
survive harsh conditions for long periods of time until it finds suitable ground on which
it can grow.

As plants are immobile, they must have effective methods of seed dispersal.

SEED DISPERSAL

Seed dispersal is needed to:

• Avoid overcrowding and competition for space, light, water and nutrients
• Enables the species to spread out into new environments

The main methods of dispersal are:

1. Self (mechanical) dispersal

• The fruits develop into a pod which dries out while remaining attached to the
plant.
• Drying occurs in an uneven way, resulting in forces in the pods which make
them burst open, catapulting the seeds away.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 11
2. Wind dispersal
Fruits have various structures to aid dispersion, eg. parachute fruits and seeds,
winged fruits.

3. Animal dispersal
a). By catching on fur
Some plants produce ‘hooked’ fruits which
catch on to fur of animals and are taken
away from the parent plant to fall on to new
ground.

b) By being eaten
Some fruit are sweet and juicy, forming edible fruits like apples and oranges,
sometimes they become hard and woody, forming the shells of nuts.
Sweet fleshy fruits are attractive to animals, including humans.

The animals may carry these fruits away to eat

them and drop the inedible pips (seeds) in new
places.
Or animals may eat the whole fruit, including
the seeds. The seeds pass through the digestive
system and pass out undigested in the feaces so
the seeds will end up in a new place.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 12
GERMINATION

Germination is the growth of a seed into a seedling (a young plant able to

photosynthesize)

The following changes occur during germination

1. The dry seed takes in water through the micropyle and expands
2. The seed coat ruptures
3. The young root emerges and grows downwards
4. The young shoot emerges and grows upwards
5. Starch in the cotyledons is broken down into soluble sugar which is transported
to growing points at the tip of the shoot and root
6. Root hairs increase the surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts
from the soil
7. On emergence from the soil, the shoot develops green leaves which start
photosynthesizing
8. The cotyledons shrink and wither away

• In the broad bean and its relatives, the shoot is bent back as it pushes up
through the soil to protect the plumule

• In grasses (wheat, barley and other cereals), the plumule is protected by a

sheath called the coleoptile

Hypogeal germination (as shown above) occurs in those plants where the
cotyledons remain below the ground and the plumule is forced upwards above the
ground, eg. broad bean.

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Epigeal germination occurs in those plants where the cotyledons rise above the
ground and the plumule remains protected inside the cotyledons as these push
through the soil, eg. sunflower

Conditions needed for successful germination

1. Water
This is needed for the swelling and bursting of the seed, movement of food reserves
and for growth of the shoot and root
2. Oxygen
This is needed for respiration (energy release) by the growing seedling
3. Suitable temperature
This is needed for efficient functioning of enzymes in the embryo.
Note: Light is not normally needed for germination, but it is needed for the formation
of chlorophyll and for photosynthesis by the seedling
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 14
 PROBLEM-SOLVING INVESTIGATION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS

Experiment 1: Is Oxygen needed for germination?

Outline of experiment
Cress seeds are suspended on moist cotton
wool in two flasks. Oxygen is removed from one
of the flasks with sodium pyrogallate.

The containers should be left at room temperature for a week.

Note: Sodium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air while sodium
pyrogallate absorbs oxygen. The mixture will absorb both.

Experiment 2: Is Water needed for germination?

Outline of experiment

The containers should be left at room temperature for a week.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 15
Experiment 3: Does temperature affect germination?

Outline of experiment
Maize seeds are germinated between rolls of moist blotting paper in plastic bags
kept at three different temperatures.

• Soak some maize grains for a day (soak more than needed) and then roll them
up in three strips of moist blotting paper as shown above. Use same amount of
seeds in each.

• Put the rolls into plastic bags and place them in a beaker so that they keep
upright. Place one in a fridge, one at room temperature and the other near a
heat source of about 350C. Because the seeds in the fridge will be in darkness,
the other seeds must also be enclosed in a box or cupboard to exclude light.

• After a week, examine the seedlings and measure the length of the roots and
shoots.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 16
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive organs are the testicles or testes for short (singular: testicle or
testis). Each male has a pair of testes.

The testes make the male hormone testosterone. Its production starts between the
ages of 11 – 16 years. Testosterone brings about the changes in a boy’s body as he
starts to develop into an adult. His voice deepens and hair grows on the face and
body.

The testes also produce the male gametes called spermatozoa (sperms). They lie
inside a sac called the scrotum which hangs outside the body below the abdomen.
This keeps them at a cooler temperature as sperms only develop properly in a cool
temperature.

Each spermatozoon is made of :

• a head, containing a nucleus with all the genetic
information from the male parent

• a region behind the head which is packed with

mitochondria which release energy in the form of ATP
molecules. This energy is needed by the tail for movement

• a tail which helps the sperm to travel along the female’s

reproductive system

Sperms are produced by the process of meiosis all the time in

the lining of sperm tubules called seminiferous tubules inside each testis.

The seminiferous tubules eventually unite together

and form the epididymis (6m in length) just outside
the testis. Sperms are stored in the epididymis for a
period of time.

The epididymis leads to a sperm duct called the

vas deferens. This connects the testis with the rest
of the body and leads to the outside environment.

Emptying into the vas deferens is a gland called the

seminal vesicle. These vesicles produce the
seminal fluid which is the fluid through which the spermatozoa can swim. The vas
deferens on each side empties into the urethra.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 17
At the point where the vas deferens from each testis unites with the urethra is another
gland called the prostate gland.

This gland produces secretions which:

• activate the spermatozoa to swim
• provide nutrients for the spermatozoa in their journey through the female’s
reproductive tract

The fluid which enters the urethra is called semen. It is made of:
• sperm cells, produced in the seminiferous tubules
• seminal fluid, produced in the seminal vesicles
• nutrients, produced in the prostate gland.

The urethra runs down the centre of the penis. In the male, the urethra serves as a
common passage for both urine and sperm, both not at the same time.

• The penis is an extension of the male’s body and acts as an intromittent organ
(an organ that is inserted inside the female’s body) so that the spermatozoa
enter the female and internal fertilization can take place during the process of
copulation (sexual intercourse).

• It must be erect for the semen to pass out of the body This happens when
blood is pumped into special spongy tissue in the penis.

• During an ejaculation semen is pumped out of the penis. This is due to the
contraction of the muscles around the sperm tubes and urethra.
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 18
 • Each ejaculation makes about a teaspoonful of semen but this can contain
over a 100 million sperms, although only a few reach their target, the female
egg. Inside the female body, the active spermatozoa swim up the female
reproductive tract and can live up to 2 – 3 days.

• If ejaculation does not occur, eg. in mating, the collected semen trickles down
the urethra and is eliminated with urine.

Summary of the functions of the reproductive organs in the human male

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 19
The Female Reproductive system

The female sex organs are the ovaries.

The ovaries make the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. This starts to
happen between 10 and 15 years.

Oestrogen brings about the changes in a girl’s body as she starts to develop into an
adult. The breasts develop and periods start. Progesterone prepares the womb so
that it could receive a fertilized egg if the girl was pregnant.

The ovaries also produce the female gametes called ova (singular: ovum), or eggs.

The ovaries are whitish, oval structures attached to the inside of the abdomen, one
on either side of the uterus, just below the kidneys.

Each ovary is made of:

• a mass of immature ova which gradually mature one by one

• blood vessels

• connective tissue which hold the ova and blood vessels together in their place

• an outer layer of cells which form a capsule surrounding and protecting the
inner tissues

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 20
The human ovum is about 0.1 mm in diameter. It is made up of:

• a central nucleus which carries the genetic

material of the female parent

• a dense cytoplasm surrounding the

nucleus which contains yolk droplets which
serve as nutrient for the developing egg if
this is fertilized

• a clear jelly coat called the zona pellucida

which surrounds the cytoplasm and makes
sure that only one spermatozoon enters
the ovum

• an outer cell membrane which encloses

the ovum

An egg is released about every 28 days in a process called ovulation. The egg
passes out of the ovary and is drawn into the funnel-shaped opening of a tube
called the oviduct or fallopian tube. This in turn leads to the uterus.

The inner layer of the oviduct is covered with a layer of cilia whose one-way beating
action push the egg along the oviduct to the uterus.

If sperms are present in the oviduct, the egg will be fertilized here. If the egg is not
fertilized it will die after about a day.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 21
If the egg is fertilized it will continue on its way down to the uterus where it will
attach itself to its lining and develop into a baby.

The uterus is the organ which provides the space where the embryo can grow in
the female’s body before birth. In its normal state when the woman is not
pregnant, a uterus is about 8cm long.

The neck of the uterus is surrounded by a ring of muscle called the cervix which
closes the uterus and separates it from the vagina.
The vagina is a muscular tube which receives the semen during copulation (mating
or intercourse).

Fluid is made by the walls of the vagina to help lubrication during sexual intercourse.
At birth, the baby passes out of the vagina.

In females, the urethra, which leads from the bladder has a different opening and
opens just in front of the vagina.

The area surrounding the openings of the urethra and the vagina is called the vulva.
The clitoris is a small protuberance (bulge) in the wall of the vagina which is the
female equivalent of the penis. It is a site of sexual excitement in the female.

Summary of the functions of the reproductive organs in the human female

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 22
Puberty

A baby is born with a complete set of sex organs but they only become active later
on in life. Between the ages of about 10 and 14, the testes start to make sperms and
the ovaries start to make eggs. This time of development is called puberty.
Girls usually develop earlier than boys do, but how early varies from person to person.

Puberty is triggered by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland which is found at

the base of the brain. These hormones make the sex organs active so that changes
within them and throughout the body occur.

These changes can be divided into:

• Primary sexual characteristics
• Secondary sexual characteristics (physical features associated with the sex of
the individual, ie, male or female, but not directly concerned with
reproduction.

Primary sexual characteristics in the male

• Enlargement of penis and testes
• Testes start to produce sperms
• Testes start to secrete the hormone testosterone
Note: Testosterone stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics
• ‘wet dreams’ (nocturnal emissions of semen) begin

Secondary sexual characteristics in the male

• body becomes more muscular
• larynx enlarges and the voice deepens
• hair starts to grow on the face (beard), legs, chest, armpits and pubic area
In males, sperm production takes place regularly throughout the entire life of the
male and does not stop in old age. This is because hormone production (hormones
from pituitary gland and testosterone from testes) continues throughout life.

Primary sexual characteristics in the female

• Maturation of the ovaries
• Ovaries start secreting oestrogen and progesterone
Note: Oestrogen stimulates development of female secondary sexual characteristics

Secondary sexual characteristics in the female

• Breasts start to develop and enlarge.
• The bones making up the hips (pelvic bones) widen.
• Fat deposits are laid down in cells under the skin in the hips, buttocks and
thighs, giving the characteristic female body shape.
• Hair starts to grow under the arms and in the pubic area.
In females, gamete production does not occur constantly. Only one gamete every
about 28 days is produced in what is called the menstrual cycle and stops at the
menopause, at around 45 – 55 years of age.
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 23
The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle takes about 28 days.

Days 1 – 4
The pituitary gland is stimulated by the lack of oestrogen in the blood to produce the
hormone FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

Days 5 – 14
The hormone FSH stimulates the development of a Graafian follicle within an ovary.
The Graafian follicle is a ‘container’ in which an ovum develops. Besides the ovum,
the follicle contains a number of cells which nourish the ovum during its
development. As the ovum grows, these cells die and become filled with fluid.

The follicle in turn secretes the hormone oestrogen which causes the following
effects:
• It causes the lining of the uterus to thicken in preparation for implantation
(attachment of the embryo) by increasing the number of blood vessels and
connective tissue cells
• It stops further production of FSH by the pituitary gland. This in turn stops other
follicles, and hence ova, from developing in the ovaries
• It stimulates the pituitary gland to start secreting the hormone LH (luteinizing
hormone)

Day 14
LH stimulates the Graafian follicle to burst and release the ovum. This is called
ovulation. The ovum passes into the fallopian tube and travels along it by the action
of cilia.

Days 15 – 26
Due to the continued secretion of the hormone LH by the pituitary gland:

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 24
 • The burst graafian follicle develops into a corpus luteum (yellow body), which
forms a temporary gland
• The corpus luteum starts secreting the hormone progesterone whose function is
to stimulate the uterus to continue to build up its lining, ready for implantation
of the fertilized egg

Days 26 – 28
In the absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum breaks down and production of
progesterone slows down. This will mark the end of the menstrual cycle by the
following effects:
• the lining of the uterus breaks down and blood, cell debris and the dead ovum
are discharged through the vagina. This process is called menstruation and
lasts about 5 days
• As oestrogen and progesterone are no longer being secreted, FSH production
starts again and the cycle begins once again.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 25
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 26
Fertilization

Once inside the female’s body, the active spermatozoa swim through the cervix,
through the uterus and up through the oviducts, where they live for up to 2 or 3 days
(the ovum only lives for about 24 hours).

If an ovum is present in one of the oviducts, it is surrounded by the few spermatozoa

which have made it to the oviducts.

When the spermatozoa reach the ovum they will try to enter it. As soon as one
spermatozoon penetrates the zona pellucida, a very fast reaction takes place in the
zona pellucida which converts its structure into a tough impermeable coat that
blocks other spermatozoa from entering. Therefore only one spermatozoon
penetrates the ovum.

During penetration, the tail is discarded since it is no longer needed for movement.

The process of fertilization takes place in one of the oviducts (fallopian tubes).

It occurs when the nucleus of the male gamete (spermatozoon) fuses (joins) with the
nucleus of the female gamete (ovum) resulting in the union of the genetic material.
This leads to the restoration of the original chromosome number. The resulting cell is
now called a zygote

The zygote is pushed down the

oviduct by the one-way
beating action of the cilia lining
the wall of the oviduct and into
the uterus where it implants
(sinks entirely) into the uterine
wall.

This process is called

implantation and will lead to
pregnancy

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 27
Pregnancy

The gestation period (pregnancy) is the time from fertilization to birth. It is about 40
weeks in humans.

The Graafian follicle which gave rise to the now fertilized ovum becomes an
endocrine gland called the corpus luteum. It will continue to secrete Progesterone,
so that the menstrual cycle will stop and no further follicles will develop during this
time.

The zygote starts to divide by the process of mitosis, so that the cells double their
number with every cell division:

1 → 2 → 4 → 8 → 16 → 32 → 64 → 128 → 256 → 512 → etc.

A ball of cells forms called the blastula, which eventually develops into two distinct
structures, the embryo and the placenta.

The placenta

The placenta is a plate-like

structure which is part of the
embryo not the mother.

Numerous finger-like
projections called villi
containing blood capillaries
project into blood-filled spaces
(blood belongs to the mother)
in the lining of the uterine wall).

The large number of villi

increases the surface area so
that diffusion of gases and
nutrients can occur at a
suitable rate.

There is no direct contact

between the mother’s and the
embryo’s circulatory systems.
This is important, as, if it were
not so, the mother’s high blood
pressure would damage the
delicate blood vessels of the
embryo.
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 28
Also, it is possible for the placenta to select the substances needed, although some
harmful substances, such as substances related to cigarette smoking and certain
drugs still pass through the placenta.

The placenta has 2 main functions.

1. Exchange surface
• Nutrients including glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and ions
(including folic acid, iron and calcium), vitamins (including vitamin D)
and water pass from the maternal blood spaces into the villi
• Protective antibodies
• The embryo has a more efficient form of haemoglobin which draws up
oxygen very rapidly from the mother’s red cells
• Waste material, mainly urea and carbon dioxide diffuse from the blood
in the villi into the maternal blood spaces for removal by the mother’s
circulatory system

2. Endocrine gland
The placenta produces both oestrogen and progesterone, although progesterone is
more important during pregnancy. In fact, progesterone:
• Prevents menstruation
• Prevents contractions of the uterine wall
• Keeps up the rich blood supply in the uterine wall
• Together with oestrogen, it causes growth of the mammary glands (breasts) in
preparation for milk production

After about two months, the human embryo is fully formed, with limbs and main
organ systems and becomes called the foetus. The first organ to develop is the heart
and its circulatory system.
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The foetus is surrounded by a membrane called the amnion which is filled with
amniotic fluid. This fluid has three main functions:
1. It protects the foetus from physical damage by sudden impacts, as it acts as a
shock absorber
2. It protects the foetus from sudden changes in temperatures (since the fluid is
mainly water it has a high specific heat capacity)
3. It allows the foetus to move freely

The foetus is connected to the placenta by a tube-like structure called the umbilical
cord. The cord is cut at birth. It consists of:
• An artery, taking blood from the foetus to the placenta
• A vein, bringing blood from the placenta to the foetus.

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Parturition (birth)

Parturition is the act of birth of the foetus and occurs 40 weeks after fertilization.

The onset of birth is triggered by a

change in hormones in the mother’s
blood system.

The oestrogen level increases and the

progesterone level decreases, leading
to the start of contractions of the
muscles in the uterine wall.

Also, the hormone oxytocin is

secreted by the pituitary gland and
this also causes the uterine wall
muscles to contract. These
contractions are labour pains.

The process of birth is as follows:

1. The contractions of the uterine wall muscles become stronger and more
frequent
2. The cervix dilates enough to let the baby’s head through
3. The amnion bursts releasing the amniotic fluid which runs out of the vagina
4. Very strong muscular contractions push the baby out of the uterus through the
vagina, usually head first
5. The sudden fall in temperature felt by the new born baby stimulates him/her to
cry and the baby takes his/her first breath so the lungs start working
6. When the baby is born it is still attached by the umbilical cord to the placenta
which at this stage is still attached to the uterine wall
7. The umbilical cord is tied with two clips close to the baby and the cord is cut at
a point between the clips
8. Some minutes after the birth of the baby the placenta detaches from the
uterus and passes out of the mother. This is called the after-birth.

The birth process causes the pituitary gland to secrete the hormone prolactin which
stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk. This process is called lactation.

The loss of the placenta causes degeneration of the corpus luteum so that the level
of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood falls. The pituitary gland will respond to
this by producing FSH once again and the menstrual cycle starts again sometime
after birth.
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Summary of sex hormones and their function in a human female

Gland or source Hormone Function

• Causes ovarian follicles to develop

FSH • Stimulates ovary to secrete oestrogen

• Causes ovulation
Pituitary gland LH • Causes corpus luteum to form
• Stimulates ovary to secrete
progesterone

• In pregnancy it promotes milk

Prolactin formation and secretion from the
mammary glands

• Causes the uterus to contract and

Oxytocin hence starts the birth of the foetus
• Causes milk to flow

• Causes uterine wall changes before

ovulation
Oestrogen • Starts and keeps up the
development of secondary sexual
Ovary characteristics

Progesterone (from • Keeps up the uterine wall after

corpus luteum) ovulation
• Inhibits secretion of oxytocin

Oestrogen • Maintains the corpus luteum in the

ovary
Placenta

Progesterone • Maintains the processes during

pregnancy

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 32
Summary of sexual developments of the human male and female

Parental care

Humans normally show a considerable amount of care during the long development
of the offspring from the day of birth to adulthood. Parents care for their young by:

1. Suckling them (breast-feeding)

Soon after birth, the mammary glands produce
a yellow fluid called colostrum which contains
all the nutrients the baby needs for growth and
energy. It is easier to digest than milk and
contains a number of antibodies to protect the
baby against disease as the baby’s defence
system is still not very efficient.

After a few days, milk is produced. Milk lacks

iron, which is needed to build new red blood
cells but the baby should have a good store of
iron in its liver from the pregnancy period.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 33
Breast-feeding is important since:
• The mother’s milk is best suited for the infant as it has the right composition
of nutrients
• There is less chance of harmful bacteria getting into milk than if the baby
was bottle-fed
• Milk contains antibodies which protect against disease
• Breast-feeding helps in mother-baby bonding so that a close relationship
forms

2. Providing them with solid food

The parents buy food for the offspring during its period of growth

3. Providing them with shelter, warmth and clothing

4. Protecting them from dangers

Children are protected from potentially harmful organisms or situations by their
parents

5. Training and educating them

The children are taught a great variety of skills that help them to survive and be self-
sufficient in a hostile environment

Birth control

When couples want to limit the size of their families, they use some form of birth
control. A number of methods exist, which are:
• Fertility awareness (natural) methods
• Barrier methods
• Hormonal methods
• Sterilization methods

1. Fertility awareness (natural) methods

• The calendar method

This involves keeping a careful record of the menstrual cycle, so that the time when
ovulation is likely to take place is known. Sexual intercourse is then avoided at that
time.

A human female is usually potentially fertile for about 10 days in the middle of her
menstrual cycle (between one menstruation and the next). This method is very
inaccurate as there can be variations in the cycle from one month to the other
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 • The temperature method
This involves the keeping of a daily record of the body temperature during the
menstrual cycle. During ovulation, the body temperature rises by about 0.5 0C for
about a day and then falls back to the normal body temperature.

Sexual intercourse is then avoided at this time and for about 2 days after. For this
method to work, the body temperature must be taken first thing in the morning
before getting out of bed by a special sensitive thermometer.

• The mucus method

As the time for ovulation arrives, the vagina and cervix start secreting a type of clear,
fluidy mucus which is different from that produced at different times of the month

When all these methods are used together, an 80% success in contraception can be
obtained.

2. Barrier methods – effective also against sexually-transmitted diseases.

• The condom
This is a thin, rubber, sheath worn on the erect penis to trap the sperm when they are
ejaculated

• The diaphragm
This is a small rubber disc which is placed at the top of the vagina on the cervix just
before sexual intercourse. It stops the sperm entering into the uterus

The condom and diaphragm are usually coated with spermicidal gel that kills or
immobilizes the sperm. They have a 95% success rate.

• The intra-uterine device (IUD)

This is a small, plastic-coated metal wire bent into a loop or coil which is inserted into
the uterus by a doctor and is left in there. It seems that if the uterus is already
‘occupied’, implantation of the zygote does not take place.

It should be noted that when the zygote reaches the uterus, fertilization has already
taken place, so this method may be considered as a form of abortion. It is a highly
efficient method with a success rate of 98%. A disadvantage is that uterine
infections may develop from the use of this device.

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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 35
3. Hormonal method

This involves the use of the ‘contraceptive pill’. It contains chemicals similar to the
female’s sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) and if taken on a daily basis,
the release of ova is inhibited, so conception does not take place.

This method is 99% - 100% efficient, but it has a number of side effects, including
obesity, lack of sexual excitement, breast cancer and cervical cancer

4. Sterilization methods

This involves the cutting of the vas deferens in a surgical operation called vasectomy
in the male. The sperm ducts are cut and tied so that, although ejaculation still
occurs, the semen will not contain spermatozoa. In females, the oviducts are cut
and tied so that spermatozoa do not reach the ova.

If the ducts are simply tied and not cut, the operation may sometimes be reversed.

Infertility

An infertile person is one who cannot produce children. Possible causes are:

In the male:
1. No, or too few, sperms produced by the testes (sterility)
2. Inability to get an erection and/or ejaculate

In the female:
1. No eggs produced by the ovaries (sterility)
2. Sperms die before they reach the egg
3. Fallopian tubes blocked
4. Embryo fails to implant in the uterus

Infertile couples can be helped in 4 main ways:

1. Artificial insemination
Semen from the husband or a donor is injected into a woman’s vagina
2. Fertility drugs
The woman is given a hormone preparation which stimulates her ovaries to produce
eggs
3. In vitro fertilization
An egg is taken from the ovary, fertilized outside the body and then put into the
uterus to develop
4. Adoption
The couple acquire a baby whose natural parents cannot look after it themselves
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G. Grima 2024 Topic 7 – Plant and Human Reproduction 36
 questions

Question 1

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Question 2

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Question 3

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Question 4

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Question 5

please turn over...

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Question 6

Question 7

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Question 8

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Question 9

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Question 10

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Question 11

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Question 12

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Question 13

please turn over...

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Question 14

please turn over...

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Question 15

Question 16

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Question 17

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