Feudalism in Europe

The Transformation and Decline of Feudalism in Europe (11th–15th Century)

Feudalism, the dominant socio-economic and political structure of medieval Europe, was a complex
system of reciprocal obligations and hierarchies built around land, labour, and loyalty. Originating in
the 9th and 10th centuries, it reached its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries before entering a period
of gradual but irreversible decline during the 14th and 15th centuries. The later period of feudalism,
from the 11th to the 15th centuries, witnessed fundamental transformations in landholding,
production, trade, religion, and political organisation. This essay will trace the trajectory of feudalism's
evolution and eventual dissolution, highlighting the internal contradictions and external shocks that
contributed to its collapse and the emergence of early capitalist structures.

Feudal mode and manorial

At the core of feudalism was the feudal mode of production, characterised by a natural economy
based on land. The lords, both secular and ecclesiastical, owned large tracts of land which were
worked by peasants—often serfs—who were bound to the land and owed labour, rent, or a share of
their produce in exchange for protection and access to subsistence plots. This hierarchical structure
created a relationship of compulsion rather than free exchange. The manorial system divided estates
into the lord’s demesne, cultivated by the villeins under the management of stewards, and peasant
holdings. Over time, particularly from the 11th to 13th centuries, population growth led to the
fragmentation of peasant holdings, from 100 acres in the 9th century to 20–30 acres in the 13th, as
Western Europe's population rose from 20 million to over 54 million.

An interesting feature of feudalism was subinfeudation: a pyramidal structure where monarchs

Expansion

The 11th and 12th centuries were marked by agricultural and economic expansion. Technological
advancements, such as the use of the asymmetrical iron ploughshare and the transition from oxen to
horses, along with the adoption of three-field crop rotation, significantly increased agricultural
productivity. This period also witnessed a mild climate phase, which contributed to improved harvests
and population growth.

Feudal society was structured around four main units: the castle, feudal domain, village, and parish.
The emergence of the nobility—defined increasingly by bloodline—reinforced the hierarchy. These
nobles enjoyed significant judicial and military authority within their domains. Alongside the nobility, a
new warrior class of knights emerged, whose role was shaped both by feudal obligations and
religious reform. The Gregorian Reforms, initiated by Pope Gregory VII, sought to separate the
spiritual authority of the clergy from lay interference, while asserting the supremacy of the Church.
These reforms reflected the growing tension between secular and ecclesiastical powers.
The formation of feudal monarchies represented a compromise between decentralised power and
emerging central authority. In France, the Capetian dynasty consolidated control by aligning with the
clergy and minor nobility, while in England, following the Norman Conquest, royal bureaucracy and
institutions such as sheriffs and financial officers helped strengthen state capacity. However, power
was never absolute; monarchs remained entangled in feudal customs, especially regarding land
inheritance and vassalage.

The crusades

A defining feature of high medieval Europe was the series of Crusades launched from the late 11th
century onwards. These military expeditions, driven by a mix of religious fervour, territorial ambition,
and papal propaganda, aimed to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. The First Crusade
resulted in the brutal capture of Jerusalem in 1099. Crusades were often framed as just wars and
pilgrimages, but they also served to channel knightly violence away from Europe and assert papal
authority.

However, this period also saw growing intolerance. Heretics, Jews, and homosexuals were subjected
to systemic persecution. Heresies that challenged the Church's authority triggered the establishment
of inquisitorial institutions, most notably under Pope Gregory IX. Jews were blamed for economic
grievances and theological charges, while homosexuality was criminalised as a sin against nature,
though tolerated to an extent in monastic settings.

The 13 century

The 13th century represented the zenith of medieval European stability and prosperity. It saw
significant urban expansion, the revival of long-distance trade, flourishing universities, and the
appearance of new religious movements. Towns were often structured around ecclesiastical or
administrative centres. Paris, the largest urban settlement, had an estimated population of 200,000 by
1300.

Rodney Hilton observed that medieval towns in France and England developed within the framework
of feudalism. They were often populated by recent peasants fleeing overcrowded villages and
seeking economic opportunity. Though embedded in feudal relations, towns gradually became hubs
of production, trade, and monetary exchange. Craft guilds, merchant associations, and councils
controlled urban governance, often dominated by wealthier classes.

The commercial revolution of this era was centred around three trade zones: the Mediterranean, the
Hanseatic League in the North, and the regions connecting them. Innovations such as the stern-post
rudder, lateen sail, compass, and improved cartography transformed maritime trade. Despite the
absence of a unified currency, gold coinage—reintroduced by Italian city-states such as Venice (gold
ducat, 1284)—facilitated commerce.

Merchants, once morally suspect, gained social legitimacy through charitable works and Church
sanction. Educational institutions multiplied, and Latin remained the dominant scholarly language,
though vernacular literature emerged. Simultaneously, the rise of Mendicant orders like the
Franciscans and Dominicans reflected a "Europe of charity," where friars lived among the poor and
inspired the laity to participate in spiritual renewal through the Third Orders.
Externally, the Mongol invasions of 1241 spread panic across Christendom, though they retreated
shortly after. Hungary and Poland were seen as frontlines of Christian defence, shifting the focus
away from the Crusades.

14th and 15th century

The 14th century ushered in a prolonged period of crisis that destabilised the foundations of
feudalism. Overpopulation, diminishing landholdings, and declining agricultural productivity led to
famine between 1315 and 1322. Climate anomalies, including severe cold and torrential rain,
exacerbated the crisis. Lords, now renting out much of their demesne, had limited use for labour
services, contributing to rural unemployment.

The outbreak of the Black Death in 1347 was a demographic catastrophe. The bubonic plague,
marked by blackened swellings, decimated populations across Europe. England's population, for
instance, fell by nearly 70%. Recurrent outbreaks continued into the 18th century. Labour shortages
allowed surviving peasants to demand better wages or migrate, undermining manorial control.

Concurrently, warfare intensified. The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) introduced new military
technologies, such as cannons and longbows. Mercenary armies and permanent royal forces
replaced feudal levies. Monarchs began relying on taxes rather than vassal service, further
weakening feudal bonds.

This period also saw rising popular unrest. The economic dislocation, wage suppression, and inflation
led to revolts—such as the English Peasants’ Revolt (1381)—signalling widespread discontent. A
"Europe of violence" emerged, marked by riots and crime, especially in urban centres.

The Church, too, was in crisis. The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) alienated many Christians, and the
Great Schism (1378–1417), when rival popes claimed legitimacy, fractured ecclesiastical unity.
Heretical movements like the Wycliffites in England and Hussites in Bohemia challenged Church
doctrine, demanding reform and a return to scriptural authority. Jan Hus’s execution in 1415 triggered
revolts, especially in Czech lands.

The final blow came from the east. The expanding Ottoman Empire posed an existential threat to
Christian Europe. The failed crusade of Nicopolis in 1396 and the fall of Constantinople in 1453
marked the end of the medieval Christian order in the East. Pope Pius II’s lamentation in 1453
reflects the deepening fragmentation of European Christendom.

Conclusion

By the 15th century, feudalism had largely exhausted its viability as a socio-economic system. The
internal contradictions—between lords and peasants, Church and laity, monarchy and nobility—
combined with external shocks such as war, plague, and climate change, to erode the foundations of
feudal society. As Maurice Dobb argued, the decline of the feudal mode of production was rooted in
the decay of serfdom and the growing irrelevance of the military service-based vassalage system.
The rise of monarchies with permanent armies, the growth of towns and a money-based economy,
and the spread of commerce and literacy laid the groundwork for the transition to early modern
capitalism. Feudalism, once the pillar of medieval Europe, gave way to new structures that would
define the early modern world.