Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

ership behavior.
1. Explain how traits and personality influence lead
2. Identify the Big Five personality characteristics
and explain how they relate to leadership.

3. Describe emotional intelligence and how this

theory relates to leadership.
derail leaders.
4. Explain how narcissism and Machiavellianism can
used to understand leadership behaviors.
5. Describe how the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is
rtant
making. Explain why "intrapreneurship" is an impo
6. Describe entrepreneurial leadership and decision
leadership process.
Leadership theory has evolved over time, often paralleling and reflecting changes in our eco-
nomic structure and workplace environments. In more stable preindustrial times of the 19th
century when our society was largely agrarian, early leadership scholars were in search of
specific traits, or distinguishing qualities or characteristics of a person's nature, that defined
a successful leader. The pursuit of a specific set of traits became known as the "Great man"
theory of leadership-meaning that there was a definitive set of qualities that made a person
an exceptional leader.

Personality theory, that is, "individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feel-
ing and behaving" (American Psychological Association, 2015), also emerged in the 19th cen-
tury, but it was popularized with the development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
in 1943, when employers started to become more selective about who they hired and why. By
the 1940s, the work environment was still stable but organizations grew in size, bureaucra-
cies emerged, and the position of "manager" and rational planning evolved. Efficiency and
predictability were emphasized in the study ofleadership and organizations.

From the 1950s through the 1970s, the work environment moved from stable to more com-
plex. Leadership theorists turned to the study of behaviors, motivation, and how to match
leaders with followers in particular contexts. During the 1960s and 1970s, as organizations
continued to change, cross-functional teams and horizontal structures were created. Group
processes and contingency theory emerged, that is, the study ofleadership styles that "fit" with
followers and the work context. But efficiency was still valued and leadership theory focused
on transactions (exchanges) between leader and follower, rather than transformations.

From the 1970s through the 1990s, the work environment became increasingly globalized
and even more complex and competitive. Leadership studies turned the focus to leaders
as transformational, change champions who influenced followers through relationships. tn
recent decades, leadership theory has further evolved due to the influences of the Internet,
information technologies, and an increasingly diverse workforce. Leadership studies began
to focus on change, teams, and variations of previous leadership concepts. Now trait and per-
sonality theory, behavioral and contingency theory, leader-follower exchanges, and group
and team processes are used in conjunction with one another to further our understanding of
what makes effective leaders and leadership. .

The increased emphasis on stakeholders and stockholders inside and outside of the orga-
nization requires a wider range of competencies, thus the emergence of ethical leadership,
strategic communication, high-performance cultures, negotiation, conflict management, and
always people-individuals, teams, and groups.

So, then, what make a great leader? What distinguishes leaders from others? Are leaders
born or made? These are questions we have puzzled over throughout history. In attempt-
ing to answer such questions, early theories, as previously discussed, focused on traits and
personality characteristics with the hope of finding the "magic ingredients" of leadership.
Although certain traits can, according to recent research, predict the emergence and appear-
ance of leadership, traits and personality characteristics alone cannot distinguish between
effective and ineffective leadership (Robbins & Judge, 2015). However, research has shown
that both traits and personality matter with regard to predicting organizational outcomes,
such as leader-follower relationships, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, leader-
ship promotion and development (Nichols & Cottrell, 2014).

50
 Section 3
·l
Trait Theory

'd broader context. Personat·

sses trait theo,rvJI prov1• es a . d .
Personality theory, which enc om Pa . nd
1 haracteristics an traits. Tratty
·
. I mental, emotiona1'a soc1h'a cin Fig (' Ch
is the combination of phys1ca, ·n the dim ure 1.1 m apter 1) artts
, h ry shown t ension ofleaders ilp dership can be dev
and personality t eo ' h' hapter We will • d' ss how ea eloped a e
ly int ,s c
examined more c1ose. traits can be ·lear
1scu
d d to pave the way for leadership pr l\d
ned ac.
how certain personaIt~ d r your own per an use 'ts as they relate to your approac
sonality and tra \ of leaders you adm
tices. As you read, co t' econsider the per ire and thinh
sonality and tra1 s ts in this chapter pro
to leadership. Or, pe; ~~~ the theories pre vide info k
sented. Assess~~nstyle and the styles
about h~:h~•Y !~ ~~:rstand your own evolving~:: of others {'

get starte , a e
J
matton d t p the Big Five personality
k eith er
asse ~sm
!:':tt~![Link]/t~,t~
the 100-item version. Your results Will
/[Link]. Scroll down to ta e the SO- item or
be explained later in this chapter.
. d the personality approach to leader.
This chapter begins with. . · the trait theory an
discussing . F' personality [Link]. We then exa ·
hip which today focuses heavily on the mme emo.
S ' ~1g hive ter1·stics related to personalit
y.
tional intelligence (EQ) an d
°
th
examine the popular Myers- 8rig.
er leadership c arac
d'
· gs Type In 1ca o t r (MB TI) assess ment '
Finally, we
thats common lYused
. . abo ut entrep ·
reneurial leaders h'1p and deci-
in the workplace. We conclude with ~ disc
ussion
sion making with regard to personahty.

3.1 Trait Theory

One of the first modern efforts to scientif
ically stu~y leadership was trait theory
ers in the early 1900s were interested in . Researc?-
why certam people became leaders and
t They studied military, political, and reli _others did
gious figures-Jesus, Mahatma Gandhi
~~ncoln, Napoleon Bonaparte, Joan of Arc, , Abraham
and others-and_focused on identifyi?
traits, or innate individual characteristics g leader~hip
that might result m a good leader. Their
Great leaders were born, not made. conclus1on:

The "great man" theory, as it was called,

would give rise to what is now known
ory. Initially it was called into question; rese as trait the-
archers examining the early studies not
although these "great men" did share som ed that
e characteristics, the theory overall fail
a leader's situational context into accoun ed to take
t (Stogdill, 1948). In other words, peo
leaders in one situation may not be leaders ple who are
in a different kind of situation. Howeve
would later revive the trait approach whe r, Stogdill
n he empirically showed that certain trai
~ort effectiv: leadership across various situ ts did sup-
ations (197 4). These traits included dep
ity, cooperativeness, assertiveness, initiativ end
e, dominance, high energy, self-confidenc abil-
tole~ce,_ responsibility, achievement orie e stress
ntation, adaptability, cleverness, persua
orgamzational and speaking abilities, risk si~eness,
taking, and originality.
~ater re~earchers isolated other traits. Kir
ave studies that task kn I d kpatrick and Locke (1991) found . th
.
differentiate leaders fro:~~ nr• ~onfi~e:ce, motivation, drive, cogniti m eir qua l't 1a
-
traits related to social intellig::c:r:ha ve ability, and integrity
! i:r ;:sear~hers ha;e found that leader
and others' emotions, feelings, beh s have certain
;viors, ~nd ~h : er5tao mg and awar_e~
ess
and respond to different situations
(Marlowe 198 ~hts, as well as the ab1hty of their own
Kemp, and Bader (2004) found hig to self-monitor
her intelii en:~ Ztccaro: 2002). More rec
g ' easonmg, and verbal and ently, Zacc~ro,
percept10n

51
Tr,11t Tllf'ory
Section 3.1

l3ronso n: Paul Kane/Getty Images News/Thinkstock;

W111(rey. Jason Merritt/
Getty Images [Link] lnkstock
Richard Branson and Oprah Winfrey share entrepre
neurial traits. Winfrey ls
more helping and afflllatlve; Branson ls more fun
loving and risk taking.

abilities in leaders compared to nonleaders. These rese

archers caution that leaders who have
higher intelligence than their followers may experienc
e problems relating to the followers
because of the leaders' advanced ideas.

Contemporary researchers have argued that optimism,

drive, self-confidence, honesty, and
integrity are particularly important for effective lead
ership (]ones, 2005). These particular
traits are discussed in more depth here because they
are particularly relevant to the leader-
ship theories discussed in subsequent chapters.

Optimism refers to having a positive outlook or think

ing positively. Optimistic leaders tend to
see the good in people and organizations and believe
in favorable results. This doesn't mean
optimistic leaders are blind to the negative; they are simp
ly able to see possibilities and seek
opportunities. Imagine if Apple® CEO Steve Jobs had
stopped at Macintosh computers, or if
he had allowed a power struggle with the company's
board to halt his career. (This happened
in the 1970s, and Jobs went on to found another com
pany before returning to Apple and
spearheading the launch of its vanguard cell phone and
tablet.) Stephen McDonnell, founder
and CEO of Applegate Farms, the leading producer of
organic and natural meats and cheeses
is widely quoted as arguing that optimistic attitudes
are the most commonly observed char-
acteristic in top-level executives. Optimism is a main
characteristic of leaders (Daft, 2011).
Furthermore, optimistic leaders instill and inspire simi
lar attitudes in others. They demon-
strate more self-confidence, believing in themselves
and showing more assurance in their
own skills, abilities, decisions, and visions. Self-conf
ident, optimistic leaders are not para-
lyzed by fear or anxiety and can therefore more read
ily lead others to face uncertainty and
challenging situations.

Drive can be described as determination, motivatio

n, or compulsion that leads to increased
effort. Driven leaders seek achievement, show tena
city, and are perceived as ambitious
(Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). In other words, they wor
k hard. Effective leaders also often tap
into their followers' drive. A management strategy calle
d ROWE-which stands for "results-
oriented work environment" and was first introduce
d at Best Buy-evaluates employees by

52
 . •• ,1, j

nd C~O ~arry Page

the results th og le co fo u n d e r a
e.
p p o rt s a "2 e y Produce, n,,oit th e ~chedu/es they keep. Go can use 2,?% of th e1r time to er
su e
ate and 0% program
p on proje ' n w h i.c h p
What th te~m u ing and hcts th ey hke. Such ap rtunity to ma ster it and a sense
proaches
eers
rofessional enginin volve giving people autonom se
of purpo
y ov
i:
:Y o
do· . re d rst place"ow ~hey do it, an opp ink, 2009).
o
ing It in the fi [Spiers, 2010; se
e also P ..
n d w il lin g ly d ece ing Others ·
iv
H gly a bal
st y c a n b e a t it is n o t: ly ing, and knowin · · 11· 1 tegrated. and anced
one defined by w h ith integrity is and integrity as the rnos(
Integrity means whol eness of character; a leader w y
ts e h. 0 m a n a ge rs identified honest
and ac 1,5 0
e si re d It ic ~lly. A survey of
d .
va ues tn leaders ch a p te r 2, is absoluthte
ly
iscu ss e d in
d im e n si o n re lated to ethics d to fo llo w so m eone, whe er
Honesty, as a willi ng t~at
lea d e rs h ip . A ~er all, if we are rst want to assure oursel_ves
~s~ential to r in to the boardroom,
we fi
w th a t he or she IS be
mg
b a ttle o t to kn o
It IS into
rt h y o f o u r trust. We wan y c o n fid e n t in the integrity
o ll
the person is w nd principled. We want to be fu
truthful, ethical,
a /2 0 1 2 )
P os ne 1; 1 9 9 3, p. 1 3 8 -1 3 9
ouzes & rations. Bernard
of our leaders. (K suc c e ss o f c o rp o
in
a ls o re la ted to the survival and lion investor fraud and Who
nesty are for $17 bil . Classic
Integrity and ho rving a 150-year prison term mple of dishonesty and greed r pres-
Madoff, curre
ntly se re c e n t business exa Arthur Andersen, and othe
a c k , is a
heart att dCom, ron-the
2014 suffered a rate scandals-Enron, Tyco, Worl ht us that honesty counts. En s With
o g ou
examples of corp e turn of this century have tau pecifically became synonym ancial
t th y-s fin
tigious firms-a modity, and services compan d to hide the company's true id the
m ide pa
former energy, co and greed after executives dec ny and its former executives elin
tio n pa pip
corporate corrup t accounting practices. The com American power utility, gas o:
sp e c
condition via su n had to divest and sell its No
rth
a id o u t m o re than $21.6 billi
nd p
consequences: E
nro
u ti li ti e s a n d power plants, a o rs b e tw e e n 2 0 0 4 and 2010
l interests in to its cred it .
assets, and globa C re d it o rs R ecovery Corp")
["Enron en L ay and former
si d e n t K
Former pre e re fo und guilty
illi n g w
CEO Je~ Sk s, in c luding fraud
c h a rg e
on multiple m e n ts to accoun:
s ta te
making false ied
a n d in si d e r tr a ding. Ken Lay d
tants, 2 006 before bein
g
a rt a tt a c k in
of a he rm in jail, and as
d to a lif e te
sentence w a s still serving
ff ~ k il lin g
of 2011, Je n te n c e , that was
so n se
a 24-ye~r pn 0 years. Howev
er.
d m 2 0 1 3 b y 1
reduce fa r beyond thos
;
ut e x te n d e d
the fallo o f employees at
T h o u sa n d s
two men: fi rm s lost almost
e o th e r
Enron a~d th n savings.
inks tock
Images News/ Th
is Hondros/Getty sio
all of the1r pen
If C hr s o n
Bernie Mad ce d to 1 50 years in pri

in~~~~"::
s se n te n
in 2009 fo o ~ dulent Ponzi
th e biggest frau h is is b a se d o n considerable
scheme . ~e lured inIIve' s
tors in to Trait theory ple
inve st m en t~ h. JS ry
g$ 6 5 b" e w a s h a n d h a s b ro ad appeal· peo
c eme, ta k in J Jon . H ~esea rc
e rs in term~ of cer-
charged With fra ud, money laund erm · perjury, and
g, li~e to ~e rc e iv e le a d
(Yan g, 20 1 4 ). H o w e v e r, a lt h ough the traits
thef t tam tra1ts.
 discuss ed here. have shown to be assoc,at · e d with · leadership,• no traits · of
· with the exception
. . . '
t hc B1g Five discussed in the. next sect·ton, have been linked · to successful organizational out-
comes or [Link] ·
and 1t is diffi cu It to predict
"" t· . .' 1. how leaders with certain traits would be
e11cc 1ve situati
m organ1zat1onah d on (W ·11 · ·
•t th s. e w, discuss this more in later sections.) However,
th e trat eory approac oes serve a purpose ·m the workplace. As we will discuss further
. th " 11 . section . • es some insight into what makes
111 e 10 owing on personalit'tes, trait· t heory provid
a goo d Iea der.

3.2 Pers onal ity App roac h

The word personality is often asso-
ciated with people who are either
popular and well liked or are unpop-
ular and not very well liked- that is,
we tend to say a person has a "good
personality" or not. This oversim-
plification of the concept can be
misleading. As part of social science
and organizational behavior stud-
ies, personality is a powerful concept
that organizes individual capacities,
emotions, and motives (Wang, 2010),
and can provide insights into how
leaders, followers, and professionals
make decisions and influence rela-
tionships. It is a useful tool.
Digital Vision/Thinkstock
Personality is a powerful concept that can provide
Are leaders made or born? There is
insights into how leaders, followers, and profession-
consensus among scholars that per-
als make decisions and influence relationships sonality is partly hereditary but also
developed. Although personality can
and does change, it is more changeable
a per-
in adolescence according to some researchers (Hampson & Goldberg, 2006). Knowing
but
son's personality profile does not predict who will be an effective or ineffective leader,
e
as we discuss in the following sections, there are personality characteristics that do indicat
t
effective, emergent leadership practices. Also, personality theory is another tool and concep
well as
you can use to help you better understand yourself as an evolving or current leader as
understanding the actions and behaviors of leaders around you.
is
Personality theory provides a broader context of which trait theory is a part. Personality
can be
the combination of physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics and traits. It
ual's
the way people act and react to others (Robbins & Judge, 2015), and it affects an individ
some
perceptions and behaviors. Unlike the great man theory and early research on traits,
t by
personality characteristics have been linked to leadership effectiveness. Leaders benefi
areness
knowing their personality characteristics. First, they can increase their own self-aw
practi-
and awareness of others. Research (Palmer, Green, Duncan, & Zarate, 2013), as well as
Second,
cal experience, shows that leaders' personality characteristics influence followers.

54
 I

FinaIIY, th
they can Iearn to adjust their personal style to accommodate their followe wrs. -11 ' ey
adapt th e1r. communication and personal style to en hance Performance. t· e w1 exam·1ne ....Cq.,.·•
pe . 1y_use d by corpor a ions world . ell) '"'0
rso~ality theories that are among the most popula r and the Myers- B _wide
I ¾Q
are of interest to current scholars: the Big Five personality mode fi t let's start w·it~ggs
the date
f ?dicator (M BTI). We will also discuss emotional intelligence. But IfS
side of personality. ~

Dark Side of Personality

h.
1 d the [Link] of th 0 se Wh
In an attempt avoid glorifying the nature of lea ders P an . .
111
lead, scholars have written about the "dark side" of personality. We ; p~mt out some 0~
th
these critiques in different chapters throughout the text, but let's touc on w at e dark Side
of personality actually means.
of
Slattery (2009), for example, defines the dark side of lea~ership a~ "~n ongoing Pattern
behaviour exhibited by a leader that results in overall negative orgamsatwnal o_utc~mes based
on the interactions between the leader, follower and the environment. Orgamsational goat
morale and foJJower satisfaction are thwarted through the abuse of power and self-interest
if
c.
the leader" (p. 4). Other authors have referred to the dark side of leaders as "toxic," "destru
tive," "petty tyrants," "aversive," "arrogant," and derailed (Slattery, 2009).

Other scholars, such as Hogan and Hogan (2001), provided 11 dark side personality traits•
excitable, skeptical, cautious, reserved, leisurely, bold, mischievous, colorful, imaginative, dili~
gent, and dutiful. Ashforth (1994J noted that the signs of dark side leadership also include
behaviors such as "self-aggrandisement, belittling foIJowers, lack of consideration for others
a forcing style of conflict," punishment for no reason, discouraging initiatives, and undermin~
ing organizational goals and the well-being of followers (Slattery, 2009, p. 3).

~his is ~1 to ~ay that person_ality is complex. Personal beliefs, values, and motivation, in addi-
hip
tion to s1tuati~nal and relat1~~al facto_rs, aH play a part in helping us understand leaders
and how particular personaht1es mam_fest themselves. Having a charming personality
could
1 compel followers, but we need to be mmdful of where it is we're being led.

The Big Five Personality Characteristics

-
ThetBhig Fi~de personality chara ctenst ks-wh ich have also been referred to as "traits"
are e pro uct of decades of research (Dig
ing empirical results related to leadershi ~:n, .
1990) d
an have shown the most promis-
of research into five general charact . . p ect1veness. The model condenses 25
years
s
confirm that there is a relationshi e~s:s (or factors) that make up personality. Studie
(~arrick & Mount, 2004; Oh & Ber ~0;9 een th~se char~cteristics and job perfor
mance
ahty you wish to describe is based~nth 10 }-JAicc~rdmg to this model, any individual's person-
e owmg characteristics:
1. Extroversion: The extent to wh. h .
a~sertive, and emotionally exp;:s s~!e~ t~:s outgoing, excitable, sociable, talkative,
high-energy, take-charge determ. d. ?
y extroverted leaders can also exert
relates to dominance, th~t is, lead: : a:1tudes and ?ehaviors. Extraversion also
w o are assertive, competitive, and have a

55
l'er~o nality Ap p roach
Section 3.2

take-charge approach to gett· h'

is introversion-individual m~ t mgs done. Opposite the spectrum of extraversion
thinking and taking time tos wb O are more often energized by reflecting through
. d'1v1'duals more comfortablo serve
m h and pro cess m . fo rmation,
. and who relate to
be the most predictive chara~t ~n _to large groups. Extraversion has been shown to
!lies, & Gerhardt, 2002). Note t~~!~:::..r effective en:1ergent leadership (Judge, Bono,
m decreased leader effectiven ( g too assertive and dominant can also result
2. Agreeableness: The extent t ehs~ Ames & Flynn, 2007).
. kmdness,
s1on, . ow
affection, and u dtch a person
. shows trust, cooperation,
.
compas-
sensitive, afflliative, and soclab7e ~r:~~;adt~g. Agree~bleness is als_o related to being
to others, forming relationshl s a .rn &_ Nurmi, 2009), that 1s, paying attention
related to emotional intellige p • ;.d bemg friendly and approachable. This trait is
are generally more liked thann~r tscussed_lat~r. in the chapter. Afeeable people
abiding, less likely to get . t s~greeable md1v1duals, are more compliant and rule
O
Judge 20lS p 127) H m accidents, and more satisfied in their jobs" (Robbins &
contrlbutin~ t~ orga· . o~evej agreeable people participate In citizenship behavior,
ant behavior (Iii Fmlza iona .performance and not showing organizationally devi-
r . . es, u mer, Sp1tzmuller, & Johnson 2009)
3. 1..onsc1ent1ousness· The extent t0 h' h ' ·
able . d · . w IC a person is thoughtful, goal directed, depend-
' orga_mze_ , and mindful of details. Conscientiousness and openness next to
extravers1on
d ' indicate
. a stro ng assoc1at1on
. . to leadership. . Because conscientiousness
.' .
an extraversion are also positively related to leadership self-efficacy (Ng, Ang,
& Chan, 200~)-that is, an individual's belief about her or his ability to produce
outcomes-it follows that this personality characteristic, and that of extraversion,
are als~ ~elated to leadership performance (Robbins & Judge, 2015).
4. Neu_rotic1sm (Adjustment): The extent to which a person is emotionally unstable,
anxious, moody, irritable, less self-confident, and prone to sudden emotional out-
bursts. A question for leaders and followers with regard to this dimension is how to
manage one's emotions. Effective management of emotions results in self-control,
stability, calmness, and maintaining composure in difficult and crisis situations.
Composure and being relaxed is also associated with higher self-confidence, more
positive attitudes, and being able to offer constructive and uplifting feedback At
the opposite end of this spectrum, as noted above, is a loss of self-control and self-
confidence, symptoms of which often manifest as nervousness and irritability that
can lead to negativity, narcissistic behaviors, and even hostility.
5. Openness: The extent to which a person is imaginative, flexible, insightful, and
intellectually curious and sensitive. Being open to new experiences encourages
creativity, innovation, and the ability to deal with complexity and ambiguity-
all are important characteristics needed for change and exploration. A study by
Palmer et al. (2013) showed that participants' personalities who are more extra-
verted and open to new experiences "believe Directive Leadership contributed to
being an outstanding leader and, conversely, that the more extraverted and open to
new experiences the participants, the less they believed Bureaucratic Leadership
contributed to outstanding leadership, and the more they believed that Self-
Serving Leadership inhibited outstanding leadership" (p. 62). At the same time,
those who are more open to experiences may also be more prone to workplace
accidents (Clark & Robertson, 2008). The oppos_it~ ~nd of the ~pectr~~ of open-
ness is close-mindedness which indicates inflex1b1hty, not havmg res1hence, and
not being able to adapt to change-characteristics that do not contribute to effec-
tive leadership influence and performance.

56
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Big Five Continuum haracteristics on

. the
or int a COI),
C
I · to view
Another way of understanding the Big Five mo de .1~ are you extrave rted . . bl rovette..i
· 11ty, a e or u 1.1,
ttnuum, that is to what extent and under w hat cond1t1ons . 1·ty and depe
ndab1
nab1
' .
agreeable or antagonistic conscientious or lac k'ing integr xperiences?
e
' I d to new e
to control your emotions, and open or c ose ................... Introversion
................... .................. ........... Antagon 1·s.....
1. Ext ravers ion ............................ ............................. ...................... l ·••
....................................... ............ Unscrupu ousness
2. Agreeableness ..................................... .......................................... .. ..... Emotional stability
3. Conscientiousness.................................. ....................................... Closed-mindednes
4. Neuroticlsm/ Adjustment ........................... ............................................. s
5. Openness to experience.............. . the results of several separ
yn thes1zes d ate
. th t combines an d s . between 196 7 an 1998 foun
A meta-analysis-an analysis ~. and personality stu die: ssociated with being an effe d
and related studie~-of lead~~i ipFive theory we~e strong ~:scientiousness, openness, anc.
that four of the traits from th s/effect, extravers1on an~ J that the Big Five theory is un~
tive leader:_ i~ or~er ;f :r;~;;:1so largely su~ported t~e ;a~;uage, history, religion, politic~I
low neurot1c~sm. tu i;ss cultures, despite differences m 6· Triandis & Suh, 2002; Yamagata
versally apphcable ac~tural features (Paunonen et al., 199 ffects behaviors and values, Which
system20s,Oa6n)dA:t!~~ ~~ discussed in later ch~pters, cult:::e~. The Big Five theory has provided
et al., . kers interact with one an
in turn can affect how cowor l'ty characteristics across cultures.
evidence for accessing persona I .
. take the brief Fwe Factor Personality
rce offered earI1er, . d
In addition to the [Link] k th n reflect on your experiences an personal
Test (at [Link] ), e periences agree with or differ from your
d 'th friends Do your ex
style at work, at home, an WI · this assessment be helpful to you as a devel-
Big Five assessment results? In what ways can
oping leader?

3.3 Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Emo [Link] 1·ntelligence, abbreviated EI or EQ (as in IQ, only here we
(
are discussing
. ,
emotional
.
elements of intelligence), is a person's ability to be self-aware recogmze ones emotions
when experienced), notice emotions in others, and manage emotional cues and information.
An emotionally intelligent leader is able to effectively manage oneself and others (Goleman,
2000) and is further able to use the power of emotional energy to inspire, motivate, under-
stand, and improve the morale of organization members and teams. One researcher attributed
Abraham Lincoln's enormous power as a president to emotional intelligence, not to IQ, cha-
risma, or political ability (Kauffman & Coutu, 2009). Another study, which examined the suc-
cesses ~nd failures of 11 U.S. presidents (from Franklin Roosevelt to Bill Clinton), found that
:e mam characteristic differentiating the successful (e.g., Roosevelt, Kennedy, and Reagan)
om the un successful (e.g., Johnson, Carter, and Nixon) was emotional intelligence (Smola &
Sutton, 2002). Emotional intelligence can be learned and practiced.

One research study indicated that ffi cti I d .

intelligence. Goleman (2000) ed e ve e~ ers use different components of emotional
groupe th ese various capabilities into four basic classifications,

57
 as shown in Fi01 •re 3 1 · self
"'~ . . -awareness If
manage ment. 'se -management, social awareness, and relationship

Figure 3.1: Emotional intellig

ence-four dimensions

Self

Sell-Awareness
Socinl AwnrPnPss
• I r11o tir ,11;,i ',r,11 ilW;ir, ,,,, ,,_,,
• '.ir, lf <:, 111'rrl1•rH:r> •I
1
II,,'"" I'/
• Ar:r.111,1!11 ' ·<·II r•v;rh 1,1tro 11 • ·>1 •! VH f '111'' 11f, 1f 1r ill

• ( ) f (l, 11 11/ 1111 ,1,, 1! ,1'."l, \l ll llf' ' . (,

Sett-Management
...0 • Emotional self-control
Aelatlonehlp Management
• Development of others
i.s:: • Taking Initiative
• Bond building
CD • Conscientiousness
m • Optimism • "teamwork and collaboration
• Trustworthiness
~ Adaptability ' '
t
t
l

Self-awareness is the foundation for the other three emotional capabilities. When leaders
are not self-aware, it is doubtful they can be aware of others. Being self-aware means being
able to see and understand your emotions and feelings and how they affect you in your work
and private life. As a result, you can accurately evaluate your weaknesses and strengths. You
also have more self-confidence and trust in your own instincts, particularly when there are
no answers from other sources. A self-aware leader is better able to "see reality'' in complex
situations and in other people.

Self-management, the second important capability, is the ability to control moods, emo-
tions, and desires that can be problematic and disruptive. This doesn't mean suppressing,
avoiding, disguising, or denying these feelings; it means understanding them (Weisinger,
1998). Thus, those around you can be assured that you will be consistently authentic and
honest with them-without being an emotional time bomb. You also will be known for
honoring your responsibilities and overcoming obstacles easily because you can adapt
to different situations without letting your emotions get in the way (Daft, 2011). Leaders
who cannot do this can self-destruct professionally. They may offend or blame followers
or important partners by projecting their fears and insecurities onto them. They may act
immorally and illegally by not controlling their desires or moods. Consider politicians who
have had emotional outbursts, committed unethical acts, or been caught lying and conse-
quently been pressured to quit because they lost the public's trust, their legitimacy, and

S8
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

. . b 'Id a credible
the,r influence . It takes years to u1
reputation, and moments to lose it.
.. d stand oth·
Social awareness is the ab1hty· to un erh t,·c· able
mpat e ·
ers. A socially aware leader is e . ti·ons and
. h pie's s1tua .
to put oneself m ot er peo 1 keeping
h'le
show compassion and concern, 0w4) called this
· F st (20. al intimacy."
an objective perspective. ro
" rofessionble to under·
process the ability to show P . -
. lso better a
Socially aware leaders are a nizat1on . al situation
·
stand the context of an orga b'1 picture of their
they can more clearly see th e d~ g the needs of
derstan int rnal stake h0 Id·
organization-whI·1 e un
clients employees, and other exoaech Phil Jackson,
' I Lakers fc the sports, gre at
ers. Former Los Ang~ es
who has worked with some o ness in his coach·
players emphasized social a~a:~ basketball player Chris Carlson/Associatedpresi
ing styl~. As a former profes::o:m pathize with the reness is the abfllty to
himself, Jackson was abl~ d meditation and set· SodaI awad others and be empathetic,
men he coached. He p~act1c:ments of quiet reflec- understans Angeles Lakers coach, now
tled his team down with m 's common bond,hand Fonner Lo .
· the team , 'd nt of the New York Kmcks, Phu
tion strengthening ware of each ot er s Pres• e .
' players ec b ome more a h as shown profess1on aJ Inti-
helping . d that a strong, co e- Jaeks on, h
capabilities. Jackson recog~1ze·cture: an NBA cham· macy, Organizational awarenes . s, and a
sive team is the key to~; b~t~ championship titles service orientation to ,his players and
"th
pionship. Jackson won the most in the league's to the organization he s WI •
as a coach and player-
history (Abbott, 2010). . .
. abili to emotionally connect with others, bmld posi-
Relationship management is th~ c? ty mpassion and sensitivity. Successful leaders are
tive relationsh!ps, and express kine ~~~s~~~tain relat/onships, thus building broad networks
good communicators able to c~eat ecedented collaboration. We have already established
th sta o;s~~i:hey are able to influence others, setting the tone for
of people an~ se~ing e Asge d ·ct·
that leadersh'mspire trust. a r culture ' • d' h
. h h' · g company , managing
. . conflict, lea mg c ange, an gm mg
a carmg or 1g -ac 1evm
people to achieve extraordinary visions and orgamzational goals.

Emotional intelligence has had mixed empirical results with regard to leadership effective-
ness, but continues to be studied and used by practitioners. It is important to note that EQ,
while importantto leadership, is not a substitute for IQ (mental ability) (Dubrin, 2015). Lead-
ers need logical and emotional abilities in solving problems and influencing others. Neither
IQ nor EQ is more important than the other; both are essential for effective leadership and
followership. Leadership studies have provided sufficient evidence over the last century to
argue that there is no best way, style, or characteristic to lead and influence people to accom-
plish organizational goals.

Please take Assessment 3-1 for your EQ score and compare your results with the other assess-
:~;~:uoi~::~~:~~~~::gte~ber, ;here i~ no right
or wrong style. These assessments can
s an areas ior development as an evolving leader.

59
Asscs s1ncn t 3.1: Emot ional Intell igenc e
Instru ctions
For each of the following questions, please indicate the degree to which each stateme nt
characterizes you.
1-Neve r like me. 2-0ccas ionally like me. 3-Some times Hke me. 4-Frequ ently like me.
5- Always like me.

1. I empathi ze with other people when they have problems.

2. I go out of my way to help someone in need.

3. Most people feel comfortable talking to me about their persona l
feelings .
4. People enjoy spendin g time with me.
5. It is easy for me to openly express warm and loving feelings
toward others.
6. When someon e is annoying me, I stop to think about the other
person's situatio n rather than losing my temper.
7. In most cases I give people a second chance.
8. I think about how I can improve my relationships with those
people with whom I don't get along.
9. I think about why I don't like a person.
10. When someone makes me uncomfortable, I think about why
I am uncomfortable.
11. I can be assertive and forceful in situations where others are
trying to take advantage of me.
12. I can delay gratification in pursuit of my goals.
13. When I am anxious about a challenge, I still can prepare for it.
14. I am able to stay motivated when things do not go well.
15. I keep myself focused on my goals.
16. Overt human suffering makes me feel uncomfortable.
17. Criticism is difficult for me to accept.
18. Having car trouble makes me feel stressed .
19. I lose control when I do not win in a sporting contest.
20. Traffic jams cause me to lose control.
Scoring
Sum your scores for question s 1-5, and divide by 5.
My "perception, appraisal, and expression of emotion s" score is _ _

( continued)
 nued)
Assessment 3.1: Emotional lnteJJigence (conti
5·
Sum your score for questions 6-10 and divide by
-·
My "emotional facilitation of thinking" score i s
by 5·
Sum your score for questions 11-15 and divide loving emotional knowledge"
d emp
My "understanding and analyzing emotions, an
J •

score is
-· . b btracting your score from
For questions 17-20, reverse-score ~ach ,item , Ysu scor e to question 16,
6. Next, su
then divide
Y S.
t
you r
your new scores for these four questions add m
-·
My "reflective regulation of emotions" score i s
by 4· My overall (global) emotional
Finally, sum your four scores together and divide
intelligence score is __.
Interpretation
rk th~t id_entified ~r~e types of .
Thorndike (1920) provided an intelligence framewo
eptuahzatio~ of s?cial mtellig~nce 1s
intelligence: social, concrete, and abstract. His conc
to emotional mtelhgence. [Link]
the underpinning for the contemporary reference
, to access and generate emotions to
intelligence involves the ability to perceive emotions
al kn~wled~e, and to re?11late e_~otions
assist thought, to understand emotions and emotion
growth (Tapia, 2001 ). This definition links
reflectively to promote emotional and intellectual
s that emotion can make thinking more
intelligence and emotion and promotes the dual idea
t emotions.
intelligent and that one can think intelligently abou
your ability to appraise emotions in
According to Tapia (2001 ), your first score reflects
s with emotions when thinking is
yourself and others (empathy). The second score deal
tion. (Are your emotions sufficiently
prioritized by directing attention to important informa
vivid and available so they can be used as aids
to judgment an.d memory concerning feelings?)
tions and understand complex feelings.
Your third score deals with your ability to label emo
stay open to feelings (both those that are
Your fourth and final score concerns your ability to
global scale for emotional intelligence
pleasant and those that are unpleasant). Overall, the
rstanding, and management of emot'ion.
attempts to assess your perception, assimilation, unde
~ big~ score on each of the four dimensions is
reflective of a high level of emotion~
l to or greater than 4 on each
1~tell1g~nce on that particular dimension. A score equa A
high level of emotional intellige
d1menSion and on the global assessment suggests a sugge~~e. 1
on each dimension and on the global assessment
score equal 1? or l~ss th~n 2ce. s a ow
level of emotional intelligen
Source: Measuring Emotional Intelligence Psychthe ological Re rt. BB (2001)
ref1ecta subset of Ta ia Jooo/ . pp. 353-364, Copyright 2001 Ammons
Scientific ltd. These 20 items ument for the
n: (. t 'f7 and Tapia & Burry-Stock (1998) instr
measurement ofemotional intelligence and are show highlight the constructs
bere o' ustrate the measure and
meaning. Tapio and Burry-Stock's 41 .item measure can efound in· M Tapi &j B tional
I t Ir ofAlabama. . , a . urry- Stock. 1998. Emo
n e igence Inventory. Tuscaloosa, Al: The University

. .
3.4 Other Personali ty-Related [Link] Character1st1cs
t
Other personality attr'b es are also importa t .
I u
I . h
o~ ::a~i :~;r isti ~; help you better unders°
ff
ia~~e:~~ors leadership ~ehaviors. The fol-
trol nar~va. uate Jead~rsh1p effectiveness in
neurial Ieadersh~;s;. /el~concept, locus of con ssism, MachiaveJJianism, entrepre-
' is ta ng, and decision making~

61
Otlwr Perso nality-Re lated L d h .
ea ers Ip Characteristics
Section 3.4

Self-Conce pt
Self-concept is a person's overall u d t
tudes, feelings, self-esteem and selfn erS and ing about herself or himself that includes atti-
h ..
h ' ·confidence
t emse1ves as capable and in control f h · Those whO ave a positive self-concept see
d~nce in their judgments, ideas, and s:n: ;:selve~ and thei~ environment, and have confl-
ation question their capabilities, see the~s ose with a negative self-concept and core evalu-
themselves (Barry & Friedman 1998. R b _elves as powerless, and tend not to value or like
weak, insecure self-concepts c~n lim,it ~thb:~~ & Judge, 2011). Leaders who have negative or
well as sabotage their own reputations. s career development and personal growth, as

Self-concept can also affect the way leader .

observed two types of general attitud : view, Influence, and lead others. McGregor (1960)
Theory Y. Theory x leaders whose
trol," see people as lazy and unmoti
as:~
t a! leaders have about subordinates: Theory X and
mptions may be characterized as command and con-
ff

trolled directed coerced d . vated to work and thus believe followers have to be con-
task o;iented a~d can be ~~~rt~1cromana~ed. T~ese types of leaders are more production and
feelings and concerns Th ~mlpered, impatient, and autocratic when it comes to followers'
. d . · eory eaders, on the other hand, whose assumptions may be char-
a ctenze as commitment and
d . .
trust or· t ed, see people as being more interested in assuming
ien
res O "bIT
P ~si ity ~ . more willing and ready, in the right working environments to give full effort
attention, ~eati~ity, and energy to helping achieve organizational goals. Su~h leaders tend b~
more consideration and people oriented. Research evidence regarding attitudes and leadership
success generally supports McGregor's two classifications, but his theory requires more study.

Locus of Control
Why do some leaders tend to take CJ:'.edit for success but blame others for mistakes, while other
leaders assume responsibility for whatever happens under their leadership? This tendency can
be described in terms of an individual's locus of control. Locus is another word for site or loca-
tion, so locus of control literally refers to where a person thinks control, or responsibility, lies.
Leaders with a high internal locus of control believe what happens to them is a result of their
own actions and they take responsibility accordingly. Leaders with a high external locus of
control believe outside forces determine what happens to them and tend to blame others for
mistakes and mishaps. These people are less likely to succeed in effectively leading others.

A leader who exhibits a high internal locus of control owns and takes responsibility for a
decision he or she makes, its outcome, and its consequences. Take a quick online quiz to get a
sense of your locus of control ([Link] .[Link]. edu/pagoolka/[Link]).

Narcissism
Narcissists have a grandiose sense of self-importan ce. They are arrogant and are always seek-
ing admiration and attention. More extreme narcissists believe the world revolves ~ro~n~
them. Oracle's• CEO Larry Ellison has been described as having a higb level of ~arciss1stic
tendencies. One of his executives said, "The difference between ~o_d and Larry is th~t ~od
does not believe he is Larry" (Maccoby, 2000, p. 70). lt is not surpnsmg that some narcissists
are more charismatic than other leaders (Sosik, Chun, & Zhu, 2014).

62
 s na1ity-l{clatc ct Lcau \., 1:,111p
Other Pcr·o 0 \.;IO'"'"" _

. among the top softw

1 5
MoS would agree that Ellison is a successful 1eader-orac e ~bl• Jeaders. Narcissis:• Co~
1 55
t in the world-but narcissists are generallY hallenge
panies ' ravo thefll ' and0 tend to ereatein tL' ••e
wor ace talk down to and belittle people whO c nerallY
1 destr Ycompanies \V t0ic;
environ
kpl ments. In extreme cases' narcissistic ff
Jeaders
J Skil Ing
cal~ could possibly· have been·su •h,,~·•
return to Enron as an example, as former CE . I0 raternen
e ts ".,nd informaIItwn to suit h,· s nc ~"·•
extreme narcissist. He manipulated financia t saders an d aggressive fo owers d whomOhe 1·1.~ ee,L
an formed a clique around himself of. Enron self•inte
r . rest, without regar to ethics r 0th '"'ed
an d could manipulate. He acted in hiS own 11 ,,
d and forced Enron's spectacular downfa .
people, ·ther example. Th• co_mpany came Unde
Manufacturing conglomerate Tyco provides an~ and cEO oennis Kozlowski wa 1'fir,
in 2002 when it was discovered that then-cha,r~a;ozlowski hosted lavish parties 1.: "•ine
company money for personal luxuries. For exa7iP e, bi rthdaY pa rtY for his wife on the ; •tin1
ancient Roman settings and once gave a f 2 m'i ' 0 ~ound to have purchased a $6,000 shlalian
t
island of Sardinia, at ryco's expense. H• w;;/ Jowski was sentenced in 2005 to a ow,,
curtain with company funds (Crawford' 20. . · ozf dollars from ryco, but the com a •n&thy
I
01
O
prison sentence for stealing hundreds of milJIOns p ny spe
years working to repair its reputation.
However. as we ,aw with oracle's Ell_ison, narcissists do not necessarily leave scandals i
their wake. In a Harvard Business Review article, Maccoby (2000) described what he call n
, d . . . • ed
'pro uct1ve narcissists :

Leaders such as former General Electric

chairman and CEO Jack Welch or finan-
cier and philanthropist George Soros are
examples of productive narcissists. They
are gifted and creative strategists who see
the big picture and find meaning in the
risky proposition of changing the world
and leaving behind a legacy. Indeed, one
~eason we look to productive narcissists in
times of great transition is that they have
the audacity to push through the massive
transformations that society periodically
undertakes.

Maccoby
may (2000)
become noted !·•t [Link] narcissi
unprodu sts
"unrealistic dreamers"-1v:o when they become
to see things as th p pJe who are unable
. ey really
s1sts can become unreal" a_re. productive narcis-
they are poor listeners a 1st1c dreamers because The term M h . Superstock/Superstock
!ack empathy, dislik , re s~nsitive to criticis ac is derived fr . ,
Machiavelli's th-cen om N1ccolo
mtense desire to co; mentori~g, and possess :• 16
Prince and re& tury book The
of behaviors and I k pete. Exhibiting thes n 1ers to th
to effective ac of skills does e types and use power with ose who gain
ence on foll goal attainment or m no_t contribute sequences M h. out regard to con·
owers. eamngful influ- justify th · ac iavelli wrote "the ends
e means."

63
 Other Persona lity-Related Leadership Cha racte ristics Section 3.4

Maccoby (2000) suggests that such individuals find a trusted sidekick who can help anchor
them-and that they get therapy.

Machiavellianism (Mach)
Machlavelllanlsm (Mach) is named for Niccolo Machiavelli, who, in the 16th century, wrote
a book about how to get and use power. The term Mach (short for Machiavellianism) refers to
those who gain and use power without regard to the consequences. Machiavelli once noted
"let the ends justify the means."

~ake Bill: for instance. Bill is a real go-getter. He is the youngest supervisor for a large finan-
cial services firm, and has had two promotions in the last two years. A vice president who
kn ows Bill commented, "Bill is a nice guy, but he'll do anything It takes to get ahead. I know
1

hes th~~wn a couple of g~ys who were competing for his position under the bus. We like
that spmt and energy, but 1t may do him in if he isn't careful." Bill may be what theorists call
a high Mach, or someone who shows more Machiavellian behaviors. High Machs tend to be
more aggressive and, in terms of ethics, act in nonconstructive ways in the workplace with
their manipulative behavior (O'Boyle, Forsyth, Banks, & McDaniel, 2012; Hartog & Belschak,
2012). Take the Mach assessment (at [Link]
Leadership- [Link]) and see how you score.

Research shows that high Machs are more manipulative. They tend to persuade others rather
than be persuaded. High Machs like their work less than low Machs and are often more stressed
and involved in deviant work behaviors (Christie & Geis, 1970)-but they also tend to win.

Scoring high on the Mach assessment does not mean that you are immoral or sinister. A high
Mach score may indicate that you are more detached and not as personally engaged with others.
High Machs may see life as a game and use pragmatic and manipulative means to excel. Thus,
high Machs seem to prosper when face-to-face interaction is prevalent over indirect communica-
tion; when situations have minimal rules and regulations, allowing for more improvisation; and
when winning can be achieved without emotional involvement in details (Christie & Geis, 1970).
High Machs, then, succeed more in situations where the ends justify the means, where regula-
tions are ambiguous to nonexistent, and where the stakes (monetary or other material gain) are
high. Whether or not they cross the line from ethical to unethical or legal to illegal behaviors and
actions is not an inherent part of being a high Mach. It may simply be one risk a high Mach faces.
See "Take the Lead: The Conundrum of the Superstar Employee:•

Take the Lead

The Conundrum of the Superstar Employee
As a manager in the upper echelons in your organization, you are responsible for developing
employees. One employee, Christine, is particularly talented. She is known as someone
who sets and accomplishes lofty goals. She does this by setting high expectations for her
subordinates. When she commits to a task, she almost always sees it through.
(continued)
,

64
 .,, -- - · •bt)J ' .1P"- lllUI\.OlVI l_l''IIJ I IJ

r
Take the Lead (continued) h talks down to th em, and
complain thats e ft n reported that she has
The challenge ts th at many o f her followers
· f. to meet goa Is. It is o fail
e to achieve goaJ
s ... even
becomes irate and belittling when th ey a 11 e subordinates to
I issues caus d
very little patience when persona •ficant and unexpecte · gnize that these
when the personal issues are slgm . However, you reco p
he is producave. the work grou .
You want to support Christine, as s t"ve long-term effect on
negative behaviors could have a nega I , ersonality?
d to describe Christine s p Christine employed by the
1 What terms could be use tfects of keeping
· tlal long-term e
2. What ~re _the poten 'flcations of Christine's behavior?
organization? 1 fmfze the negative rami hat dimensions are likely
3. What would you do tolbme ~hrfstine's EQ? Specifically, w
4. How would you descr
especially low?
5. Would you fire Christine? Why1

. gs Type Indicator (MBTI)

3 5 Myers- Brig
• . nd behaviors. Understanding our own personality
Personality affects perceptions: attitudes, a r and work can help everyone, because person-
and the personality of others w1~ wh~m we ~ve ti rmance (Yuki, 2011). Although personality
alityatfects job satisfaction, relat1onsh1ps, an . per oho we are the more reliable and valid ones
assessments are not the only way [Link] w '
(MBTI) add additional ins1g . h •
ts mto our
st '
rengths
such as the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator , 'd f
1 ersonality assessments proVI e a range o scor:s on
and areas f~r dev~Jopment. Gene;al y, ~rson is not completely scored as an extrovert or Intro-
particular dimensions. For examp ~, a P ntage higher of one dimension than another.
vert, but will typically score a certam perce
.
A goal of taking an d un derstanding any assessment, particularly the ones in this chapter, is
.
. al d ti · nal development What we do not know, we cannot manage, improve,
personh an hpro esAss10"'OU read and take the assessments here, as in other chapters of this
or per aps c ange. J I · I
text, reflect on these scores with the goal of self-improvement and deve oping your eader-
ship potential.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTIJ personality assessment offers a more complete
profile of how different personality dimensions, taken together, can help leaders evaluate and
gain insights into the general effectiveness and ineffectiveness of their behaviors. The MBTI
is the most widely used assessment worldwide (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004). Almost 90% of
Fortune 100 companies report using this instrument, including AT&T, 3M, General Electric,
Citigroup, Apple, and FedEx. It is also used by the U.S. armed forces and other organizations .
Altho?gh research does not validate the MBTI's effect on leadership effectiveness, the assess-
ment is used to help leaders better understand and appreciate themselves and their followers.

F~r exa;ple, let's say you're a hiring manager and you have two qualified candidates to
0
c ~~e omH f~r a leadership position. In his former company, Terrence was a company vice
Pres1 ent. e is shy and soft-spoken but . kn fi h. .
influencing others for the good of th ' is own or is behind-the-sc enes skill of quietly
e company. The other candidate, Sarah, on the other hand,
Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Section 3.5

.
is far more outspoken and can eve be ~onfrontationa\
to work harder Who is th e more enffect1ve leader? . She has a knack for persuading others
.
There is no obvious answer to this · s on
parts of all the leadership th . queStion, except for perhaps "it depends:' lt depend
approaches in this book. We will discuss
this in more depth throughiitntehs, concepts, andnow ·11 'd h" · fr
e
the perspective of these two individ
text, but
, for . .we w1 cons1 er t 1s question om
these personalities to figure O t ua!s pers?nahties. The MBTI can help break down
and cultures. u what is the right fit for particular organizational goals

The MBTI consists of 100 questions. It classifies individuals as:

· e outgoing, and
Introverted (I) • Extraverts are generally sociabl
. rted (EJ or .
• Extrave
·
' generally qui-
· around others. Introverts are
assertive. They .gam energy fro m b emg
and
eter_and sometimes shy and gain energy by focusing internally on their thoughts
feehngs.
• Intuitive (NJ or_Sensi~g (SJ. Intuitive types focus on the big picture and look for pat-
to
terns and relationships. They are visionaries. Sensing types use their five senses
gather information. They are more fact and detail oriented.
• :eeling (FJ ?r Thinking (TJ. Feeling types focus on emotions, values, and others' feel-
mgs. :~mki ng types focus on logic and objectivity in making decisions.
• Perce,vmg (PJ or Judging (]). Perceiving types desire more information and data in
order to make a decision. They enjoy ambiguity and complexity. Judging types like
closure, certainty, and deadlines in making decisions quickly on limited data
categories.
Personalities are thus described in terms of varying combinations of these four
potential
Each has its own strengths, weaknesses, and typical behaviors, which come with
on how
positive and negative consequences . If you take the MBTl assessm ent online, reflect
relate to your
accurately the profile describes you. Can you observe how your personality may
leaders hip style and influence?
e, you may
It is possib le that you are not completely in one category or another. For exampl
you an
fall somew here in betwee n being an extravert and an introvert, but your results label
these types are
extrav ert becaus e you happen to lean more in that direction. Note, also, that
se, their types
not unchan geable . As individuals age and gain more experience and experti
usually change.
types2 .asp and
Answe r the MBTI questio ns at [Link] [Link] manme trics.c om/cg i-win/j
bti-personality-
read your profile from the 16 types at http:// [Link]/my-m
this text.
type/m bti-bas ics/the -16-mb ti-type [Link]. Reflect on your results as you read
studies have
There is no magic combin ation of letters that guaran tees a better leader, but
g appear most
reveal ed some trends . Limited researc h sugges ts that judging and thinkin
organizations
related to effective leaders hip. Most leader s studied are judging types, and even
s-tend to select
that would seem to value "feeling'' more highly -such as counseling center
Landru m (1993) ,
thinkin g types as manag ers (Daft, 2011). A book titled Profiles of Genius, by
ft®, Apple, and
exami ned 13 founde rs of highly successful companies, such as Sonye, Microso
in only 5% of thE
Honda, and found that most were NTs (intuitive thinke rs)-a type found
U.S. popula tion.

66
 Ent repreneurial Leadership

findings
Other tentative research
include:
he ma jor-
• Intuitive lea der s are t .
ity in fields and organizations
that Involve lon.g-term plan- d
ew gro un •
ning and bre a k mg n .
• Sensing types are the ma1or-
·ty In the construction, manu-
d b kin g fiel ds,
1
factur ing , an an 'ble
ediate and tang,r ff' llll l• com stock/ Sto ckbY te/Th·inks
m
where Imces are va Iue d ove dee tock
I Is defined as a blend of
fi
pre e~e n s (Da ft, 20 11 ).
Level S Leade;:.h ~n d Inten
se professi on al wut
intuitive style ty
ful leaders or personal bum
mold
Of course, not all succe::e same n imberly-Clark from 19 71 to 199CoJJ· as
1, \\'.
managers come from es. Da rwi t au tho r Jim
ape r-p rod uct s company K r. Good to Grea
or fit the sam
Smith, who was CEO
e ster
t ;J
eoh typ

:sh av
shu
ing
nn
wh
ing
at
att
Co
ent
llin
ion
s_
."
t~~
Ho
me
;:~ :~ el 5 leadership," a blend
lin s wrote that Smith "showed iron
of"delIJs
Wi~f.
described as _"shy, a~th na l wil l. C~ ~ its industry, ge ne rat ing sto ck retu
rn!
b~d" S;; th "in ten se pro fes sio
(2005) descri_ presiden:
r~e tha t Smith, like the sh y vice
personal hu:r~~~
:51 ~~~~:~~eater than
om pan

al
the
exa
y int
gen
mp
o
era
le
a
l
"w

at
ma
the
orl
-~~mt
dw
rke
b~
!,d
t.
!~n
e le~

ref
~~
of thi s discussion, ~a d oth er character
lected in a pe rso na bty ass ess me
istics
nt. H~ couJd
B~b in our hypoth etic
no t ~av e e att itu de s, an d ski lls tha t ma tch ed the org?mzation
like iron will) that mayo~ ma y the MBTI, he1might have
e_n cl~ " cyc le Had Smith taken
i1so have had the rig ht mix
.gh
of
t
~xp
tim e
e~i
m its 11e'fl d his . organizationa styIe ac cu rat e y.
I
th e .ri 'd
(Kimberly-ClarkJ at son ality profile I ent1 e
confirmed tha t his per

E nt re pr en eu rial L ea de rs hi p
_
36
Oprah Winfrey, Beyonce [Link]
les-
sk Me lin da Ga tes Jef f Be zos ,
.k Elon Mu , uri al risk
What do 1eaders 1i enson, and Ta, ylor Swift have in common? They are en tre pre ne
Carter, Richard Bra
takers who innovate.
d ini tia te new , inn ov ati ve ve ntu res an d business prac-
Entrepreneurial leaders organize an ity an d ris k in ho pe of ma xim um rew ard (Da
ft,
res po nsi bil
tices, assuming much of the pe op le can ran ge from bu sin es s ma gn ate
s like
tts, 19 98 ). Th ese
2011; Kuratko & Hodge rs who ma y no t be in the ne ws
. Some col-
ve to sm all-bu sin ess ow ne
those mentioned abo ft's Bi11 Gates,
ty stu de nts ha ve bec om e en trepreneurial leaders: Mi cro so ty
lege and unive rsi
y Bri n, an d Fa ceb oo k's Ma rk Zu ck erb erg we re universi
Google's Larry Page and Serge s. All ha d the sa me thi ng in co mm on :
vision,
d the ir com pa nie
studen~ when they starte Th ey als o thi nk an d ac t ou tsi de the box.
Their
gn ess to tak e ris ks.
enter~nse, and a willin t at the sam e tim e hold the po ten tia l
for positive
ul or dan ger ou s, ye
behaviors can be har mf
t wi tho ut ris k, the re is litt le rew ard . Bu t tak ing risks does
outcomes. It could be arg ued tha . to see
not tassum e succes s Tak e the essment on ris
ass
. k mg
tak an d entrepreneurial thi nk ing
how en [Link]· you are.

67
En trepr eneu rial Lead ershi p Se<tion 3.6

De cis ion Ma kin g

4) reviewed 602 a . . .
She pherd, Trenton, and Patzelt (201neu . d' . rttcles, disti lled them to 156, and sum-
marized characteristi cs of entr epre rs as m ,v,duals who are high ly diverse and different
in their beliefs and desires, which

help explain why som e choo se tO b

cho ose man ager ial or th ecome entr epre neu rs and why
othe rs O roles. Relative
to non entr epre neu rs ' entr eprene urs er hemployment-rel ated
ave. high er levels of ·md",v,·d uah•sm,
ope nne ss to chan ge ' and self-en h anc eme nt and \owe l \ Of pow er,
coll ct' . (T r eve s
conformity, secu rity (Ho lt• 199 7 ) , and e 1v1sm han, 200 1) · Compared
a
to non entr eprehneu rs, entr epre neu rs also ppe ar to avei a mor I
e vers atile
·
• • line ar (i e a lyt'
thm kmg
.
styl e t . at bala
c· nce s both . ., na IC, rat onath''log
t kl
,cal ) and
b
non. Imea r 1.e., mtu itive , crea tive , emo tion al) app roach es o m ng a out
. Moreov er, ent repr ene urs are mor e
a. s1tuat1on (Gro. ves, .Vance, & Choi , 201 1) . · g an
hke ly to see s1tuat1ons as rela .
ting to pers ona l stre ngths, representm
.
l for gain than non entr epre neu rs
opp ortu nity , and repr esen tmg pote ntia .
(Palich & Bagby, 199 5)
decision making •
These auth ors present a com plex and nua· nced picture of entrepreneurial emo tions
. h . I d d'ffi · onal and cultural heritage, perceptions ,
wh1c me u es _1 erences m gender, nati
and assessments of risk, level of self-efficacy,
and affect, exp~r~ence~, e~vironmental context epreneurs can also be prone to certain biases
and meta-cogmt1ve thinking. Moreover, entr rreliance on experience:• '
ove
such as "overoptimism, overconfidence, and
ts
repr ene urs, com pare d to non entr epre neu rs (Shepherd et al., 2014), tend to show trai
Ent le
openness to change, and self-enhancement; whi
and characteristics higher in individualism,
trat ing low er levels of pow er, conform ity, security (Holt, 199 7), and collectivism (.Tan,
demons ting
alike, but these characteristics serve as a star
200 1). Obviously not all entrepreneurs are ts
entrepreneurial and nonentrepreneurial trai
point for understanding differences between
and behaviors.
ce
(2014, p. 14) four dimensions tha t influen
Figure 3.2 illu stra tes She phe rd's et al. first
ing, bas ed on rese arch in this field. The
ent rep ren eur ial opp ortu nity decision mak tics of
ass ess men t is the individual characteris
dim ens ion tha t influences opp ortu nity
ren eur : the ir per son alit ies, emo tion al makeup, biases, and perceptions of the
the ent rep
env iron men ts.
eneurial
sec ond dec isio n ent rep ren eur s ma ke- wh eth er or not to ent er an entrepr
The nity
eer -is infl uen ced by indi vidu al "asp irations and attitudes, abilities, and opportu
car 14)
Bes ides the fina ncia l fact ors nee ded to star t a new venture, Shepherd et al. (20
costs." i-
tha t "pe rce ptio ns of the self (e.g., iden tity , abilities, and desires), perceptions of the env
stat e u-
(e.g ., hos tile , mun ific ent) , and dec isio n-making tools" (p. 14) are imp orta nt infl
ron me nt
thir d infl uen cing fact or, or wh eth er or not to exploit an opportunity, involves the
enc ers. The
nin g, the org aniz atio nal con text , the funding, and how the ent rep ren eur per -
deg ree of plan ortu nity
values the anti cipa ted outcomes of the opp
ceived thro ugh his or her mo ral len s and end s on
ren eur decides to exit an opp ortu nity dep
decision. Finally, wh eth er or not an ent rep ent rea son s.
per for ma nce of the bus ine ss as wel l as per son al circumstances and inv estm
the men t,
d et al. (20 14) also not e tha t oth er fact ors suc h as gen der differences, risk ass ess
She par

68
Entrepreneu rial Leadership

·nfluence an entrepr~o
JSO I
factors a "llt'
s
I ironment
cultural background, and externa e~v
opportunity assessment decision making. h
. researc
. rnak111g - -- - -
rial decision·
Figure 3.2: Map of entrepreneu Environmen t

neurshiP
fntrep re
Acit1Vflfe9

essment

decisions J
1. Opportunity ass · - - - - 7. Environment as
entreprneurial
decision context
[Link] of Entrepreneurial entry d
2, , Heuristics an
5
the entrepreneuria l
decision maker
decisions
J . - - - - . biases in th 8
decision-making
process
3 Decisions about .
. axploltlng opportunities

J
4. Entrepreneurial
exit decisions

Intrapreneurs
.. te that to assume that entrepreneurs only start companies would be limiting
It 1s important to no k · ·d stabI' h d · ·
the definition of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs who wor ms1 e e . 1s e orgamzations
are called intrapreneurs. Intrapreneurs take risks to create new solutions to develop, extend,
and change products and services for competitive advantage. For example, the yellow Post-It
notes that are now taken for granted were invented by scientists Spencer Silver and Art Fry,
who both worked at 3M. Silver developed the adhesive, and it was Fry who thought to apply
this "low-stick"adhesive to a piece of paper. However, even after they designed and readied the
Post-It® prototype, it reportedly would be several years before 3M was willing to recognize its
~[Link] and Fry were probably one of the first intrapreneurs. 3M later instituted a "bootleg-
ging" pro~, enabling innovative engineers to take time off while at work to experiment with
entrepreneunal products. lntrapreneurs may not be as visible as entrepreneurs but they serve
avaluable service and function to organizations in terms of all the roles discussed in Chapter 1.
Like the study of leadership and Fi re 11 h to understand entre·
preneurial leadership and i~trap gu · ' t e roadmap for ·this htext, . s of persons,
d'1menswn
reneurs ·
[Link] exa mmmg t e
processes, and systems-leaders in th .
eir enVIronmental contexts.

69
 Summary & Resourres

Summary & Resources

Cha pte r Summa ry

Trait theory and personality theory are central to the study of leadership. It has been said
that many organizational cultures reflect and mimic the personality of their leader(s). The
Big Five personality traits are, to date, the most empirically significant cross-cultural indica-
tors of emergent leadership characteristics, job performance, and job satisfaction. Extra-
version, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and neuroticism (adjustment) are
important indicators ofleadership. In addition, the MBTI is one of the most globally used
assessments. Although it alone cannot predict effective leadership or leaders, it is useful in
developing self-awareness and in helping leaders gain insight into their personalities.

The dark side of leadership can be defined as "an ongoing pattern of behaviour el<hibited by
a leader that results in overall negative organisational outcomes based on the interactions
between the leader, follower and the environment. Organisational goals, morale and follower
satisfaction are thwarted through the abuse of power and self-interest of the leader" (Slat-
tery, 2009, p. 4). Being aware of the dark side ofleadership and being able to take reasonable
courses of action are important to followers, the organization, and one's well-being in an orga-
nization. For publicly traded companies the shareholders' wealth and resources are at stake,
and for nonprofits and other organizations, the well-being of employees and safe-guarding of
resources may be at risk. Sometimes toxic leadership and destructive behaviors can be con-
trolled and corrected; sometimes not. Human Resources executives are good resources when
it is suspected that top-level leaders may be placing an organization at risk. Attorneys for the
organization and members of the board of directors are other such resources.

Other personality characteristics and frameworks, such as EQ (emotional intelligence),

self-concept, focus of control, narcissism, Machiave\\ianism (Mach), and entrepreneurial and
intrapreneurial leadership, are also helpful tools and concepts for understanding persona\
dimensions of leaders and of ourselves. While environmental and contextual factors influ-
ence entrepreneurial behavior, we also need to understand the persona\ and emotional
makeup ofleaders to gage how effectively they relate to themselves and to others in achiev-
ing performance goals.

Web Resources
Edgar Schein on Corporate Culture
[Link] lGWuk
Aleading organizational culture thinker discusses his latest thinking on corporate culture.

Organizational Culture -0n the Screen

[Link]
movies_tv/nine_to_five_1980.htm
A collection of clips from the moyies Office Space and Nine to Five helps illu~rate negative
organizational culture.

70
 I Persuasion
0 t1ona
Leadership Is All About Ern
[Link] [Link]/ insight on persuasion.
nt offers some
Acommunication s consulta

. k' Questions t t consider when evaluating a lead

Critical Thin mg ers
. e still irnportan o
What leadership traits ar . . . Per,
1. sonal effectiveness? Expl~;~ high levels on the positive dn~ens1ons of the Big Fiv
2. Can leaders who do "~\~cs be effective in their roles? Expla1~i1 t f e
personality charactert f the importance of emotional inte gence o e fective
3. Argue the pros and cons o .
leadership. Tl file offers both effective results and potential deraulll
4. Explain how your MB p~;ader ents
to your effectiveness as a . th .current business and general news that exernp1·
s. o_irer [Link]::~[~!:!~;~"Big\ive personality chara~eristic~. Then ~xplain ho~

~~::~;:~:;~s:;~:
different dim. . .d ntified are helping or hindering thelf effectiveness.
ri:ut~e\ews who has exhibited "dar~ide'~iharacteristics.
6. Explain the situation and evidence tha~ this is th_e caie, ere ere any consequences
from that leader's negative or destructive behav10rs. . .
Compare and contrast your own evolving or current leadership st~le with the char.
th
7· acteristics of entrepreneurial leaders. Use concepts from e text m your comparison
and contrast.

Key Terms
forces determine what happens to them
Big Five personality traits Personality
dimensions that measure extraversion- and tend to blame others for mistakes and
introversion, agreeableness-antagonism, mishaps.
conscientiousness-unscrupulousness, neurot-
icism (adjustment)-emotional stability, and internal locus of control Leaders with a
openness to experience-close-mindedness. high internal locus of control believe what
happens to them is a result of their own
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Involves actions and take responsibility.
the ability to perceive emotions, to access
and generate emotions to assist thought, intrapreneurs Entrepreneurs who work
to understand emotions and emotional inside established organizations.
knowledge, and to regulate emotions
reflectively to promote emotional and locus of control Refers to where a person
intellectual growth. thinks control, or responsibility, lies.

entrepreneurial leadership Leaders who Machiavellianism (Mach) Refers to those

organize and initiate new, innovative ven- who gain and see power without regard to
tures and business practices. the consequences: As Machiavelli wrote, "let
the ends justify the means."
e~ernal locus of control Leaders with a
high external locus of control believe outside

71
 Summary & Resources

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Per- self-management The ability to control

sonality assessment that offers a more moods, emotions, and desires that can be
complete profile of how different per- problematic and disruptive.
sonality dimensions, taken together, can
help leaders evaluate and gain insight into social awareness The ability to under-
the general effectiveness and ineffective- stand others.
ness of their behaviors. ~easures the
dimensions of extroversion-introversion, Theory X Leaders whose assumptions
intuition-sensing, thinking-feeling, and may be characterized as "command and
judging-perceiving. control" view people as lazy and unmoti-
vated to work and thus believe followers
narcissism Those who have a grandiose have to be controlled, directed, coerced, and
sense of self-importance. They are arrogant micromanaged.
and are always seeking admiration and
attention. Theory y Leaders whose assumptions
may be characterized as commitment and
personality Individual differences in char- trust oriented view people as being more
acteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and interested in assuming responsibility and
behaving. more willing and ready to particip~te in
task accomplishment. Note th at ne~ther
self-awareness The ability to see and Theory Xnor Theory y is more v~hd than
understand your emotions and feelings and the other. Empirical studies provide such
how they affect you in your work and private evidence.
life; the foundation for the other three emo-
tional capabilities in emotional intelligence. traits A distinguishing quality or character-
istic of a person's nature.
self-concept A person's overall under-
standing about herself or himself that
includes attitudes, feelings, self-esteem, and
self-confidence.

72