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Magnetic Skyrmions and Their
Applications
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic
and Optical Materials

Magnetic Skyrmions and

Their Applications

Edited by

Giovanni Finocchio
Christos Panagopoulos

An imprint of Elsevier
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom
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Contributors

Gabriele Bonanno Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

uttner Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, Berlin, Germany

Felix B€

Mario Carpentieri Department of Electrical and Information Engineering,

Politecnico of Bari, Bari, Italy

Xing Chen Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of Microelectronics,
Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Oksana Chubykalo-Fesenko Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC,

Madrid, Spain

Giuseppina D’Aguı̀ Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Messina,

Italy

Konstantin Denisov Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

Motohiko Ezawa Department of Applied Physics, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo,

Japan

Peter Fischer Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States

Hans J. Hug Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science

and Technology, D€
ubendorf; Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel,
Switzerland

Wang Kang Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of Microelectronics,
Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Mathias Kl€
aui Institute of Physics, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz,
Germany

William Legrand Unite Mixte de Physique, CNRS, Thales, Universite Paris-Saclay,

Palaiseau, France
x Contributors

Na Lei Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of Microelectronics,

Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Andrey O. Leonov Chirality Research Center, Hiroshima University; Department of

Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hiroshima University Kagamiyama, Higashi-
Hiroshima, Hiroshima, Japan; IFW Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Sai Li Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of Microelectronics,

Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Kai Litzius Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Materials Science

and Engineering, Cambridge, MA, United States

Xiaoxi Liu Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Shinshu University,

Nagano, Japan

Jacques Miltat Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Universite Paris-Saclay, CNRS,

Orsay, France

Catherine Pappas Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology,

Delft, The Netherlands

Stanislas Rohart Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Universite Paris-Saclay,

CNRS, Orsay, France

Sujoy Roy Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States

Igor Rozhansky Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

Luis Sánchez-Tejerina Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences,

Physical Sciences and Earth Sciences; Department of Biomedical, Dental,
Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences, University of Messina, Messina,
Italy

Laichuan Shen School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong
Kong, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China

Andre Thiaville Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Universite Paris-Saclay,

CNRS, Orsay, France

Riccardo Tomasello Institute of Applied and Computational Mathematics,

Heraklion-Crete, Greece

Oleg A. Tretiakov School of Physics, The University of New South Wales, Sydney,
NSW, Australia
Contributors xi

Seonghoon Woo IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY,
United States

Jing Xia School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China

Xichao Zhang School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of

Hong Kong, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China

Xueying Zhang Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of

Microelectronics, Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Weisheng Zhao Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of

Microelectronics, Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Yan Zhou School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of

Hong Kong, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China

Daoqian Zhu Fert Beijing Research Institute, BDBC, and School of

Microelectronics, Beihang University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Roberto Zivieri Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Physical

Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
Preface

This book discusses fundamental concepts and research activities in the rapidly grow-
ing field of magnetic skyrmions. These are particle-like objects that are topologically
stable, highly mobile, and have the smallest magnetic configurations, making them
promising for technological applications, including spintronics and neuromorphic
computing.
Paradoxically, skyrmions were expected to be short-time excitations, quickly col-
lapsing into point or linear singularities. However, the seminal work of A.N.
Bogdanov and D.N. Yablonsky in 1989 indicated skyrmions may exist as long-living
metastable configurations in low-symmetry condensed matter systems with broken
mirror symmetry. For example, in noncentrosymmetric magnetic materials, the under-
lying crystallographic handedness imposes a unique stabilization mechanism
(Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction) for two- and three-dimensional localized states.
Hence, material classes expected to host skyrmions may include noncentrosymmetric
ferro- and antiferromagnets and multiferroics where the topological field is the mag-
netization. A similar stabilization mechanism for chiral skyrmions may apply in liquid
crystals and ferroelectrics.
Expectedly, the scientific and technological relevance of chiral skyrmions is fuel-
ling research in novel classes of materials. Magnetic skyrmions have been reported in
a plethora of materials, including bulk ferromagnets, ferrimagnets, and multiferroics.
Furthermore, one can engineer a structure that cannot be inverted. For example, by
breaking symmetry through the interface between two different materials. An inter-
face between a ferromagnet and a strong spin-orbit metal gives rise to the necessary
Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction, even if both metals have inversion-symmetric
lattices.
This book discusses the relevant fundamental concepts and results in this exciting
field of research. Equal weight is dedicated on the realm of technological applications.
The chapters start with a description of topologically stable structures in one-, two-,
and three-dimensional space. The Thiele equation is derived from a fundamental
micromagnetic description of statics and dynamics. A pure mathematical description
of topology is included later for a rigorous definition of topological and metric spaces
and compactness.
Realization of magnetic skyrmions in condensed matter physics propelled the
development of numerous materials architectures and advances in experimental
methods of characterization. Materials hosting magnetic skyrmions now range from
bulk single crystals to synthetic architectures. High-resolution magnetic imaging has
been at the center of skyrmion research and development. A comprehensive
xiv Preface

description provided in this book helps the reader appreciate techniques that continue
to make pioneering contributions in this field of research.
Intelligent device configurations employed to engineer skyrmion states in mate-
rials that would otherwise not accommodate such spin structures are discussed. In
addition, exotic structures characterized by anisotropic Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya inter-
action and Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida interaction to host antiskyrmions and
synthetic antiferromagnetic skyrmions are discussed. For instance, skyrmion stabili-
zation and detection in antiferromagnets is at an early stage, facing many challenges
ahead. Theoretical foundations however encourage further material development and
characterization for the stabilization of skyrmions in antiferromagnetic structures. The
community is increasingly active in this direction. Ferrimagnets represent another
promising material platform for skyrmionics. Recent advances in imaging, writing,
deleting, and electrical detection of ferrimagnetic skyrmions demonstrate their prom-
ising impact toward device technology.
An account on the statics and dynamics of magnetic skyrmions gives a glimpse in
the key attributes of their technological potential. A detailed description of dynamics
in the presence of thermal fluctuations is discussed in the light of recent proof of con-
cept of skyrmion-based devices for probabilistic computing. Attention is given to the
definition of the skyrmion configurational entropy based on the concept of Boltzmann
order function, useful for the theoretical understanding of phase transitions in mate-
rials hosting skyrmions.
A direction highly relevant for applications is electrical manipulation. A strategy to
nucleate skyrmions with electric currents is discussed, considering nucleation via spa-
tial inhomogeneity, local injection of spin-transfer torque, and voltage-controlled
magnetic anisotropy. Although the goal is the integration of magnetic tunnel junctions
in multilayers hosting skyrmions, the topological Hall effect has proven an effective
approach for electrical detection. Analysis of the topological Hall effect in the pres-
ence of magnetic skyrmions provides an up to date account of research and discusses
pressing challenges. The discussion on the dynamics of skyrmions addresses also the
so-called skyrmion Hall angle. Oblique trajectories followed by the skyrmion when
moved by spin-orbit torques is a limiting factor in applications such as the racetrack
memory. This has motivated the research community further to explore ferrimagnetic
and antiferromagnetic materials as energy-efficient skyrmion hosts.
Skyrmion-based devices have the potential to store and process information at
unprecedentedly small sizes and levels of energy consumption. The presence/absence
of a skyrmion could serve as 1/0 in a data bit and multiple skyrmions can aggregate
toward multivalued storage devices. The states of such devices can be modulated by
an electric current, driving skyrmions in and out of devices in analogy to biological
synapses. Researchers have already engineered interfacial skyrmions up to room tem-
perature in magnetic multilayers, making their promise for future technologies more
realistic. This offers an opportunity to bring topology into consumer-friendly, low-
energy nanoscale electronics. The ability we have gained to engineer skyrmion-host
platforms is propelling new technological opportunities. For example, conventional
applications of skyrmions for the realization of memories, logic gates, transistors,
and radio frequency circuits such as oscillators. The application of magnetic
Preface xv

skyrmions in unconventional computing is a tantalizing possibility including pro-

posals for the realization of skyrmion-based memristors. One may also envisage ener-
getically efficient neurons and synapses at device level toward low-power
neuromorphics hardware.
It has been a pleasure to work with the co-authors and the Elsevier team. Their con-
tributions have made possible the delivery of an inclusive description of the rapidly
growing research field of magnetic skyrmions.
Giovanni Finocchio
Christos Panagopoulos
Acknowledgments

G.F. acknowledges project ThunderSKY, funded by the Hellenic Foundation for

Research and Innovation (HFRI) and the General Secretariat for Research and
Technology (GSRT), under Grant No. 871 and PETASPIN Association. C.P.
acknowledges support from the Singapore National Research Foundation (NRF)
NRF-Investigatorship (No. NRFNRFI2015-04) and Singapore MOE Academic
Research Fund Tier 3 Grant MOE2018-T3-1-002.
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Magnetism and topology
Andr

a
e Thiavillea, Jacques Miltata, and Stanislas Roharta
Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Universit
e Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Orsay, France
1
1.1 Introduction
The application of topology to describe real-space structures in condensed matter has
developed over the years, in fact as topology itself was being rigorously constructed.
The first structures treated by this approach were the defects, like dislocation lines in
crystal lattices, or the lines observed in liquid crystals, at the beginning of the 20th
century. The methodology was then extended to structures that contain no defect.
We shall keep this historical order for the first half of this chapter, dealing with the
static description of magnetic structures (also called magnetic textures). The second
half discusses the dynamics of the magnetic structures.
In this chapter, mathematical formalism is kept to a minimum. The reader
completely unaware of this field of mathematics should refer to textbooks [1, 2] or
review papers [3] and, if a deeper mathematical view is desired, to the last chapter
of this book.
Defects can appear only when there is an underlying order. In condensed matter
physics, there are many cases where phases with different types or degree of order
appear in sequence, for example, when temperature or pressure is changed. In the Lan-
dau theory of phase transitions, order is characterized by the existence of a certain
physical quantity called order parameter, which can be a scalar, a complex number,
a vector, a tensor, etc. This order parameter is also endowed with a certain number of
degrees of freedom, defining a space V called the manifold of internal states. To be
specific, let us enumerate the cases for magnetism. The order parameter is the mag-
netic moment. Depending on the type of magnetism (localized or itinerant), magnetic
order (ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetica), and also atomic structure (single crystal, poly-
crystal, amorphous), the distribution of the magnetic moment on the atomic scale will
be very different. However, on the mesoscopic lengthscale where micromagnetics [4,
5] reigns, these atomic subtleties are polished out, leaving only a magnetic moment
that is a continuous function of space and time. This moment has a zero thermodynam-
ical average above the Curie temperature, and nonzero one below this temperature,
leading to a spontaneous magnetization Ms(T) a sole function of temperature
T. The degrees of freedom correspond to the orientation of this moment, and they
! ! !
are described by a unit vector m ð r , tÞ, a function of position r , and time t. Our world
being three dimensional (3D), three cases are considered.

a
Note that we do not consider in this chapter the antiferromagnets, for which the order parameter is different.
Magnetic Skyrmions and Their Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820815-1.00012-2
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Magnetic Skyrmions and Their Applications

!
l
Heisenberg model: Magnetization has n ¼ 3 components as m can take any orientation in 3D,
the manifold of internal states is V ¼ 2 , and the unit sphere in three dimensions is described
by two variables (e.g., the polar angle θ and the azimuthal angle ϕ), hence the exponent 2.
Physically this should be the only case, in general. It is, however, sometimes interesting to
consider the two other limiting cases.
l
XY model: This case corresponds to an easy plane, magnetization has n ¼ 2 components, the
out-of-plane anisotropy energy being (mathematically) infinite. Physically, it means that
other energy terms are much smaller. This can be a description of a soft magnetic thin film,
or of a weak ferromagnet (e.g., the orthoferrites) where the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interac-
tion confines the ferromagnetic moment to the plane normal to its vector. The manifold of
internal states is V ¼ 1 , and the unit circle in the (easy) plane, is described by just one
variable (the angle).
l
Ising model: The last case is complementary to the preceding one, with an easy axis of (math-
ematically) infinite anisotropy, so that magnetization has just n ¼ 1 component. The manifold
of internal states is V ¼ 0 , this notation meaning just the two points +1 and 1.
The internal space V plays a capital role in the topological formalism.

1.2 Topological defects in magnetism

In a medium with order, a defect is a point or a collection of points where the order
parameter is not defined; one can have a point-like defect, or a defective line, or a
defective surface, and so on for space dimensions d that would be larger than 3.
The defect is said to be topological when, whatever the continuous modifications
exerted on the order parameter distribution over space, it cannot be removed. In short,
this defect cannot be cured.
The defect dimensionality is called d0 ; its value is d0 ¼ 0 for a point, d0 ¼ 1 for a line,
and d0 ¼ 2 for a surface. The dimension of the physical space being denoted d, one has
d0 < d. Note that the defect, in this idealization of the order parameter as a continuous
function, has no width, it is just a discontinuity of the order parameter. But how can the
presence or not of a defect with no size be detected? This can be done with topology.
The method is inspired by the Burgers circuit used to detect the presence of dislocation
lines in atomic arrangements [6]. The generalization of this method is to consider a
closed contour of dimension r in the physical space (i.e., the sphere r , or any con-
tinuous deformation of it). To look for a defect of dimension d0 in a space of dimension
d, the contour dimension r has to satisfy [7, 8]
0
d + r + 1 ¼ d: (1.1)

The case of a dislocation line (d0 ¼ 1) in the usual space with d ¼ 3 corresponds to a
closed loop r ¼ 1. Similarly, to look for a point defect d0 ¼ 0 in the 3D space (d ¼ 3)
requires a sphere-like surface hence r ¼ 2 (Fig. 1.1).
Every magnetization texture, by the orientation of the magnetization vector, gives
rise to an image of the r-dimensional closed contour on the parameter space V. In
mathematical terminology, this is called a mapping. A continuous deformation of
Magnetism and topology 3

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 1.1 Contours to look for topological defects in d ¼ 3 space. The contour dimensionality
r is adapted to the defect dimensionality d0 according to Eq. (1.1), as illustrated here for
(A) d0 ¼ 2, (B) d0 ¼ 1, and (C) d0 ¼ 0. The defects are drawn in red, and the associated contours
in gray.

the magnetization texture leads to a continuous deformation of the image on the

parameter space V. The branch of topology called homotopy precisely deals with that.
Two images are said to be equivalent (belonging to the same homotopy class) if they
can be continuously transformed one into the other. For every space V, there exists an
object called the rth homotopy group, denoted π r(V), and each element of the group is
a homotopy class. The group has an obvious “zero” (it is called neutral) element,
which is the class of the contours whose image can be continuously shrunk to a point.
The group is said to be trivial if it consists only of the neutral element. This means that
all contours can be continuously contracted to a point. In that case, there can be no
topological defect of dimension d0 ¼ d  r  1. Indeed, there will be no obstacle
in shrinking, in the physical space, the r-dimensional contour, magnetization will
be always defined on the contour and will finally converge to the magnetization vector
at the center of the contour when its size reaches zero. The topologically interesting case
is the nontrivial one, when the homotopy group has more than one element. In that case,
for a contour that has an image on V which belongs to a nonneutral homotopy class,
when shrinking it in physical space, at some moment the magnetization orientation
has to be undefined: the defect will be met.
For the case of magnetism, where V ¼ n1 , with n the number of magnetization
components (see Section 1.1), the nontrivial homotopy groups with r < 3 are
l
π 0 ð0 Þ ¼ 2 ≡ f0, 1g: for Ising spins, there exist topological defective surfaces in 3D, topo-
logical line defects in two-dimensional (2D), and topological point defects in one-
dimensional space (1D);
l
π 1 ð1 Þ ¼  ≡ f0, + 1,  1, + 2,  2, …g: for XY spins, there exist topological linear defects
in 3D space, and topological point defects in 2D;
l
π 2 ð2 Þ ¼ : for Heisenberg spins, there are topological defects in the form of points in
3D space.
The well-known examples of the second case are the Kosterlitz-Thouless vortices and
antivortices (Fig. 1.3), whereas in the third case, it is the Bloch point (Fig. 1.2).
4 Magnetic Skyrmions and Their Applications

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 1.2 Bloch points for the Heisenberg model. The orientations of the magnetization on a
sphere surrounding the Bloch point are schematically drawn. (A) So-called hedgehog Bloch
point, with radial magnetization everywhere, covering the unit sphere + 1 time. The variant with
opposite magnetization everywhere covers the unit sphere  1 time, so is topologically
different. (B) So-called combed Bloch point, with a lower magnetostatic energy [10], which is
found in most structures (see Section 1.5). This structure can be derived from (A) by a π/2
rotation of the magnetizations around the vertical axis, hence is topologically equivalent.
(C) structure derived from (A) by a π rotation around the vertical axis, so again topologically
equivalent to it. (D) Structure which has a S ¼ 1 winding number on the equator, with a p ¼ 1
axial magnetization on the poles, hence also covering + 1 time the sphere. It is also the same as
(C), rotating the whole sample by π/2 around a horizontal axis.

Therefore, given that the XY and Ising models are only approximations, the only true
topological defect in ferromagnetism is the Bloch point.

1.2.1 The Bloch point

The structure and the name were invented by Ernst Feldtkeller in Ref. [9], a pioneering
paper for the application of topology to magnetism. It is the first topological magnetic
structure studied; it has the defining property that around it every magnetization ori-
entation appears once exactly. Some schematic structures of the magnetization around
it are drawn in Fig. 1.2.
A surprising property of the Bloch point is that it has a finite energy. In the frame of
micromagnetics, even if the exchange energy density diverges with distance r to the
center like A/r2 around the Bloch point,b the integral of this density is finite,
amounting to 8πAR, R being the radius up to which the Bloch point profile holds.
On the other hand, going back to the atomic scale, having a Bloch point amounts
to forcing to zero the magnetization in a volume of the size of an atom. Thus, if
J is the exchange energy per nearest-neighbor bond, and Z is the number of nearest

b
A is the micromagnetic exchange constant, proportional to the exchange energy J and inversely propor-
tional to the lattice constant [5].
Magnetism and topology 5

neighbors, the cost of a Bloch point is about ZJ. For a simple cubic lattice, the two
formulae are close for R ¼ a/2. This is the “core” cost of a BP, consisting of
exchange only.
The magnetostatic cost of a Bloch point was evaluated by D€oring [10]. It was found
that the hedgehog Bloch point (Fig. 1.2A), being a monopole, has the highest energy.
Conversely, the “combed” Bloch point (Fig. 1.2B) carries much less energy. There is
also an anisotropy cost of a Bloch point. Altogether, the insertion energy of a Bloch
point in a material with anisotropy (K) dominating magnetostatics is given by a
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
micromagnetic radius R  A=K [11].
In the framework of atomic micromagnetics, the exchange energy cost as a function
of the position of the mathematical center of the Bloch point (in between the atoms) was
studied by Reinhardt, who found the best interstitial positions for the Bloch point as well
as its saddle point when moving from an atomic cell to another [12]. The friction linked
to these saddle points was shown theoretically to be detectable in the motion of so-called
Bloch point walls in nanowires [13].

1.2.2 The singular vortex

As is apparent from Fig. 1.3, a vortex topological point defect for the XY model
(therefore in 2D) can be seen as a cut through the center of a Bloch point, the point
topological defect for the Heisenberg model, so in 3D.
Regarding the vortex energy, the exchange energy density in the continuous micro-
magnetic formulation diverges again as A/r2, but now the radial integral also diverges
logarithmically [14]. The divergence at small size is removed, in the theory papers, by
introducing a finite lower bound for the integration over the radius. This indeed cor-
responds to the atomic micromagnetic calculation, which gives a finite result.

(A) (B)
Fig. 1.3 Vortices for the XY model. The orientations of the magnetization around the vortex
core, located at the origin, are figured by arrows. (A) Vortex, here in the radial variant. This
structure can be continuously converted into the circulating variants (like the velocity field of a
vortex in fluid dynamics), with both circulation directions. All these variants are described by
the constant C in the relation ϕ ¼ φ + C, with φ the angle of the position vector, and ϕ the angle
of the magnetization. (B) Antivortex, described by ϕ ¼ φ (any additional constant can be
absorbed by a rotation of the coordinate axes).
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 8: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Part 2: Experimental procedures and results
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 12: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 13: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 15: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 3: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 29: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 32: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 38: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 5: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 42: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 47: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 6: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 53: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 54: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 59: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 7: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 61: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 63: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 69: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Abstract 8: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 74: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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