Structures and design

NOTE: This is only a summary essential to the owner. It does not necessarily discuss everything
on the subject matter, thus it is not recommended to heavily rely on this notes for your review.
Some information is assumed to be very fundamental while some information seems to be
unnecessary to be written on this reading. Read and understand everything carefully.

References used for review:

1. Airplane Design Manual – Teichmann
2. AIRCRAFT DESIGN _ A Conceptual Approach BY DANIEL P RAYMER
3. Peery - Aircraft Structures
4. Bruhn - Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures
5. Strength of Materials 4th Ed. by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andre
6. 14 CFR part 23 (old)
7. 1001 solved problems (strength of materials)
8. Mathalino website
Additional Side note:
1. Study new 14 CFR part 23, do not read the old one.
2. Some bullets (contents) are repeated unintentionally.

GOOD LUCK TO YOU FUTURE AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER!

EAGH
 STREMA by Singer and pytel

 Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area
o σ = Force / Area
 Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress.
o Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area
of the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile
stress and compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed by two
opposing forces.
o Shear stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area
o bearing stress, it is the contact pressure between two bodies.
 Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.
o τ = V/A
o where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area A
being sheared
o Area of punched region = πDt
o Double shear: τ = V/2A
 Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.
o A=tD
 Thin walled pressure vessels
o Tangential stress / circumferential stress / hoop stress / girth stress
 σt = pd/2t
o If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be
expressed as
 σt = (pi−po)d/2t
o longitudinal stress
 σL = pd/4t
o σt = 2 σL
o spherical shell
 σL = pd/4t
 strain - ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to the original length
o ε=δ/L
o δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is dimensionless

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 hookes law - From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a
straight line
o stress is directly proportional to strain
o k=E=σ/δ
o The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's
Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P
 ELASTIC LIMIT - limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when
the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
 The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R
is called the plastic range
 Yield point - Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.
 Ultimate strength - The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength
or tensile strength.
 Rapture strength - Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known
as the breaking strength.
 MODULUS OF RESILIENCE
o Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m3
 Maximum amount of energy per unit volume which can be stored in the
material by stressing it and then completely recovered when the stress is
removed
o area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E
o The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a
permanent distortion.
o Resilience – capacity of material to absorb energy in the elastic range
 MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS
o Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m3
 Amount of strain energy absorbed per unit volume when stressed to the
ultimate strength value
o area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R)

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 o The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.
o Toughness – ability to absorb energy when stressed in the plastic range. Capacity of a
material for resisting fracture under a dynamic load
 Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading
 Allowable stress is the maximum safe stress that a material can carry
o should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit.
o allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor
of safety.
 Tangent modulus – determined by drawing a tangent to the stress strain diagram at the point
under consideration. The slope of this tangent gives the local rate of change of stress with strain
 Secant modulus – determined by drawing a secant from the origin to the point in question. It
measures the ratio between stress and actual strain
 factor of safety is the ratio of this ultimate or yield strength to allowable strength
 σ = Eε , σ = P / A and ε = δ / L ; δ= PL/AE
 stiffness, k - ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement
o k=P/δ
 The ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called the modulus of elasticity in shear or
modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G
o G = τ / Y, εS = δs / L and τ = V / A ; δs = V L / A G
 Poissons ratio - ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or
strain)
o Lateral strain / axial strain ; v = -εy / εx
o For most steel, it lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.
 Thermal stress
o δT = α L (T2-T1)
o α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter, and Ti and Tf
are the initial and final temperatures, respectively in °C.
o deformation due to equivalent axial stress. σ = E α (T2-T1)
 torsional shearing stress
o τmax = Tr / J
o where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the outer radius. T is
torque
o J = π D4 / 32
 Angle of twist
o Θ = TL / JG in radians
 Power transmitted by shaft
o P=2πTf
o f is the number of revolutions per second
 Torsion of thin walled tubes
o T=2Aq ; q = t τ
o T is the torque in N·mm, A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the tube in mm2 ,
and q is the shear flow in N/mm. t is thickness and τ is shear stress
o T = 2At τ

EAGH
 Bruhn
 Centroids, Center of Gravity. The centroid of a line, area, volume, or mass is that point at which
the whole line, area, volume, or mass may be conceived to be concentrated and have the same
moment with respect to an axis as when distributed in Its true or natural way.
 Moment of inertia of an area. Factor which indicates the influence of the area itself in
determining the total rotating moment of uniformly varying forces applied over an area
 Radius of gyration. The distance from the inertia axis to that point in the solid at which, if its
entire mass could be concentrated, its moment of inertia would be the same.
 Higher moments of inertia indicate that more force has to be applied in order to cause a
rotation whereas lower moments of inertia means that only low forces are necessary.
 Polar moment of inertia. Moment of inertia of an area with respect to a point in its surface
(Ix+Iy)
 Parallel axis theorem. (transfer formula) amount of inertia of an area with respect to any axis in
the plane of the area is equal to the moment of inertia of the area with respect to a parallel
centroidal axis plus the product of the area and the square of the distance between the two
axes
 Principal axis. An axis about which the moment of inertia of the area is either greater or less
than for any other axis passing thru the centroid of the area. Axes for which the product of
inertia is zero are principal axes
 The second moment of area is the same as the area moment of inertia (or a couple of related
terms - see Second moment of area). It is a measure for the resistance of a shape to bending
about a certain axis. Usually, we apply it to a beam structure
 Limit or applied loads. Maximum loads anticipated on the airplane during its lifetime of service.
The airplane structure shall be capable of supporting the limit loads without suffering
detrimental permanent deformations. At all loads up to the limit loads the deformation of the
structure shall be such as not to interfere with the safe operation of the airplane
 Ultimate or design loads. Equal to the limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety.
 Factor of safety = 1.5
 Although aircraft are not supposed to undergo greater loads than the specific limit loads, a
certain amount of reserve strength against complete structural failure of a unit is necessary in
the design of any machine. It is due to many factors such as:
o Approximations involved in aerodynamic theory and stress analysis theory
o Variations in physical properties of materials
o Variation in fabrication
 External loads on aircraft
o Air loads – maneuver, air gusts
o Landing loads – landing, arresting (landing on aircraft carriers)
o Powerplant loads – thrust, torque
o Take off loads – catapulting, assisted take off
o Special loads – hoisting airplane, towing, fuselage pressurizing
o Weight and inertia loads
 Aerodynamic center – point on an airfoil that the moment due to the lift and drag forces is
constant for any angle of attack. Approximate location is at the 25% of chord from leading edge.

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 Load factor – numerical multiplying factor by which the forces on the airplane in steady flight
are multiplied to obtain a static system of forces equivalent to the dynamic force system acting
during the acceleration of the airplane
 Applied or limit load factor – maximum load factors that might occur during the service of the
particular airplane
 Gust velocity according to data – 30 fps
 Gust load factor – when a sharp edge gust strikes the airplane, a sudden change takes place in
angle of attack with no sudden change in speed
o Change in load factor = KUVA / 575 W/S
o K = gust correction factor depending on wing loading
o U = gust velocity in ft/s
o V = indicated airspeed in mph
o S = wing area in ft
o W = gross weight of airplane
o Indicates that most lightly loaded condition (small gross weight) produces the highest
gust load factor
 Deflection of flaps moves the center of pressure considerably aft
 Structures made up entirely of two force members are trusses
 Keel beam resists bending loads

Teichman
 Sesquiplane – biplane that has a lowering wing smaller than the upper wing
 Semicantilever – externally braced wing
 VTOL – must get off the ground without any roll and clear a 50 ft obstacle in 250 ft
 STOL – allowed ground roll but must be able to clear a 50 ft obstacle 500 ft from starting point
 Minimum speed corresponds to clmax for a given wing loading
 Stalling speed – considered as landing speed
 Maximum value of cl corresponds to minimum speed
 Minimum value of cd corresponds to maximum speed
 Speed range ratio = cl max / cd min (range of speeds)
 Maximum gliding range – cl/cd max
 Highest load factor in flight is encountered when pulling out of a dive
 Minimum power – cl 3/2 / cd should be max. also known as power coefficient
 Range – cl /cd max
 Categories of airplanes
o Normal – non acrobatic, non-scheduled passenger and non-scheduled cargo operation
airplanes are included
o Utility – airplanes used in normal operations and limited acrobatic maneuvers such as
steep turns, spins, lazy eights, stalls, and chandelles, but not snap or inverted
maneuvers or whip stalls

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 o Acrobatic – no specific restrictions as to type of maneuver unless flight tests indicate
certain limitations. Specified load factors are highest for this category
o Transport – used in scheduled passenger or cargo operations
o Restricted – includes any airplane not covered by any other category
 Maneuvering load factor formula
o n = 2.1 + (24000 / W + 10000)
o n not be greater than 3.8 or shall not be less than 2.5
o utility n = 4.4
o acrobatic n = 6
 speeds for gust velocity
o 30 fps for speeds up to cruising speed
o 15 fps for speeds up to dive speed
 Margin of safety – difference between the maximum load or stress that is likely to be imposed
under any condition in the normal operation of the aircraft. Each member should be chosen so
that its strength margin of safety is 0. MS = FS - 1
 Fool proof operation – a system that has to be operated must be designed so as to avoid
damage that may result from any deviation from correct operating procedures. It is desirable
also to avoid designs of assemblies in which it may be possible to interchange parts having
similar outward appearances but different characteristics.
 Fail safe – should one member of a complex structure fail, some other member would be called
upon to carry the load.
 One horse shay principle – each part fails at the same time
 In order to avoid permanent sets, the applied stress must fall below the yield point of the
material
 Lightening holes
o To increase in plane stability by means of the raised lip around the hole
o Provide passageway for control systems
o Provide access to another portion of an interior
 Beading – ridges called beads are used to increase rigidity of an otherwise flat plate
 Stiffeners – small short length angles may be attached to an otherwise large flat sheet to
increase its shear carrying ability and to reduce or eliminate any tin canning tendencies
 Propellers on seaplanes should clear the water by at least 18 inches when the seaplane is at rest
 CG is usually placed as close to the aerodynamic center of the wing
 Horizontal surfaces are placed 2.5-3 times the MAC behind the aerodynamic center of the wing /
CG. Assures reasonable static longitudinal stability
 If CG is moved ahead of the design position, the airplane will be more stable but will trim with
the same horizontal tail surface at a smaller angle of attack
 If CG is moved rearward, airplane will be less stable and horizontal tail surface will trim at a
higher angle of attack
 General rule – cg should lie within 10-14% of MAC
 Increasing the number of propeller blades reduces overall efficiency
 In order for the propeller to operate at its maximum efficiency, it is desirable that it be placed as
far ahead of a thick body as possible to avoid blanketing
 1-2 inches clearance between propeller and structure

EAGH
 Propellers should have a ground clearance of 9 inches for conventional and 7 inches for nose
landing gear
 Mean aerodynamic chord formula
o MAC=2/3 [ct+cr-(ct cr / ct+cr)]
o CG of aircraft is usually placed at the maximum forward position of the center of
pressure on the MAC in order to get the desired stability
 Taper ratio – ratio of chord tip to chord root (ct/cr)
 Sweepback
o used to increase critical mach number of wing
o Will stall at tips first
o Decreases maneuverability
o Contributes to lateral stability
 Sweepback combined with dihedral has excessive effect. To decrease this, negative dihedral has
to be employed in combination with large sweepback angles. In addition, combined properties
tend towards longitudinal instability
 Increasing positive dihedral with swept back wings tends toward longitudinal instability, while
increasing negative dihedral with a swept back wing tends to increase longitudinal stability
 At high speed aircrafts, in order to reduce the overall drag of the wing and the fuselage, the
wing is set at a relatively larger angle of incidence to the fuselage so that at high speeds the
combination will present the optimum configuration
 Low wing loading corresponds to high rate of climb and high service ceiling
o 10-18 psf for small executive airplane
o 18-80 psf for commercial airplanes, high speed
o 45-70 psf or <150 psf for military airplanes
 High speed aircraft requires thinner airfoils
 Front spar location – 12-17% of chord
 Rear spar location – 65-75% of chord
 The positive high angle of attack condition is obtained in a pull out at the highest possible angle
of attack of the wing.
 In the positive low angle of attack, the wing has the smallest possible angle of attack at which
the lift corresponding to the limit load factor may be developed.
 The negative high angle of attack condition occurs in intentional flight maneuvers in which the
air loads on the wing are down, or when the airplane strikes sudden downdrafts when in level
flights
 The negative low angle of attack condition occurs at the limit diving speed of the airplane. This
condition may occur in an intentional maneuver producing a negative load factor or in a
negative gust condition.
 Stringers serve to add to the bending strength of the wing
 Primary functions of ribs
o Maintain chordwise shape of the airfoil
o Act as supports for the panels of the wing skin or envelope
o Transmit the pressures on the wing to the spanwise bending members
 Rib spacing – 6-18 inches

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 The primary advantage of supporting a wing externally is that the reduction in bending
moments imposed produces a lighter structure. A thinner wing can be used

 It is impossible to maneuver at speeds and load factors corresponding to points above

or to the left of line OA because this would represent angles of attack much higher than
the stalling angle
 Load factor at 1 = stalling speed of aircraft (O to A)
 Line AC represents limit maximum maneuvering load factor for which the airplane is
designed.
 Line CD represents limit permissible diving speed for the airplane. Usually 1.2—1.5 times
indicated airspeed
 Line OB is similar to line OA except that the wing is at the negative stalling angle of
attack.
 Most severe conditions will be represented by the corners of the diagram points A, B, C,
D
 Higher wing loading corresponds to higher value of K (gust load factor increment)
 Common values of K are 0.8-1.2

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 Buckling is a failure mode for thin slender and long members such as beams
 Crippling is a failure mode for short members. Deformation is always permanent
 Elliptical wing – ideal lift distribution at subsonic speeds.
 Closest compromise to the elliptical and triangular planform is the trapezoidal planform
 High aspect ratio aircrafts are economical
 High AR has better lift over drag ratio therefore better performance is a result
 Aileron length should be 25 percent of chord although 30 percent is common when flaps
are used
 Aileron area vary from 8-12 percent of the total wing area
 Spoilers decreases lift and increases drag
 3 phases of landing
o Initial or steady approach glide
o Dead stick landing or a flared landing path
o Final ground run
 3 phases of take off
o Ground run
o Transition
o Climb
 Tail wheel type landing gear
o Two main wheels placed slightly ahead of CG and a tail wheel or skid at some
distance aft of the CG
o If the front wheels are too far ahead of the CG, a greater moment would have to
be produced by the horizontal tail surfaces
o If the tail wheel is too close to the front wheels, or the front wheels are too
close together in relation to the span of the wings, the airplane may ground
loop, a phenomenon in which the airplane may pivot on one wheel, meanwhile
dragging a wing tip along the ground

o C, the angle included between the perpendicular erected at the point of contact
of the wheel with the ground in the level landing position and a line connecting
the axle and the fully loaded CG position of the airplane should be between 13-
17 degrees

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 o E, an angle equal to that corresponding to 9/10 of the maximum lift coefficient
of the wing
o The front wheel and the tail wheel should not swing more than 5 degrees
o The limiting positions of the center of gravity should be between 16 and 25
degrees of the vertical shown, for a total of 9 degrees.
 Nose wheel landing gear
o Prone to shimmy - Shimmy is an oscillation in aircraft landing gear that can
occur both on landing and take-off, typically in a band of velocities. It causes
excessive wear on components and can cause accidents.
 Tendency for the wheel to oscillate violently about the spindle axis
 Corrected by using shimmy damper / friction at the spindles of tail
wheel / locking the wheels while taxiing at high speeds
o Front wheels are limited to 10-15 degrees from the vertical; the main wheel 7.5-
15
o Susceptible to tail strike
 Wheel tread – function of height of CG, wing span, distance between front wheel and
tail wheel
 Rear wheels carry from 85-100 percent of the load while the front wheel may have from
10-25 percent of gross weight
 Toe in – vertical centerline when viewed from the front is at an angle of several degrees
from the vertical, commonly known as camber

 For small airplanes, retraction sideways is the best since sufficient room is available in
the root of the wing
 In manually operated retracting mechanism, the force to operate the crank or lever
should not exceed 15 or 20 lbs
 Minimum clearance between wheel and supporting structure is approximately 1/25 to
1/30 of the wheel diameter
 Stability is that property which tends return an airplane to its original condition of
equilibrium or line of motion when it has been disturbed from that condition
 If the airplane is to be maneuverable, it is desirable to have relatively large movable
surfaces
 Control depends on area of the surface and angular deflection

EAGH
 For high speed aircraft at or near transonic speeds, flaps for control produce an
appreciable increase in drag, known as trim drag. Corrected by using variable incidence
stabilizer
 Symmetrical airfoils are usually used for tail surfaces so that equal effectiveness per
degree of deflection may be obtained
o Tail surfaces must be observed by their lift curve slope
 A control surface is said to be statically balanced when the center of gravity of the plane
containing the hinge line acts through that hinge line. Static balance is one of the design
features required to avoid fluttering
 Canard configuration – horizontal tail surfaces are apt to stall before the wing, so that
sufficient control may not be available at a critical time. However, this feature has been
considered an advantage since the tail surfaces could act as a stall warning for the wing
 Elevators are designed to have an equal angular movement of about 25 degree
deflection
 For high speed airplanes operating through transonic regime, the adjustable stabilizer is
preferred over the elevator trim tab since the trim drag is becoming an important factor
in the performance of the airplane
 Elevator area varies from 35-45 percent of the horizontal tail surface area
 High speed aircrafts have their vertical tail surfaces at the wing tips of a swept back wing
 The fin may be adjustable to offset the yawing moment induced by the means used to
produce a rolling moment of the wing to offset the torque of the reciprocating engine
 Area of vertical tail surfaces ranges from 10-15 percent of wing area, with about 30-50
percent of the area devoted to the rudder
 Dorsal fin may be used to increase fin area in order to:
o increase directional stability if the original surface
o transmit the loads on the fin to a greater number of fuselage frames
o reduce torsional moment about longitudinal fuselage axis
o reduce overall height dimension of vertical tail
o obtain a possible weight saving
 ventral is more effective than dorsal fin since it is located below the fuselage and is not
blanketed by any structure
 cable system – most extensively used control systems
 push pull system – consists of tube which may take tension and compression likely to be
heavy
 torque tubes system – most direct and has the least amount of backlash, but it can be
used only on installations where the air loads are not excessive
 for efficient structural design, a circular cross section is desired
 rectangular offers most economical use of the space but is not suitable for shell
structures
 oval or elliptical shape fuselage is the best compromise between circular and
rectangular cross section
 in general, there is much more fuselage length ahead of the wing as there is behind it
 ratio of fuselage length to wing span should be around 1.2-2.5

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  fineness ratio – ratio of length to maximum diameter. Optimum ratio = 16
 primary functions of frames
o maintain shape of fuselage
o sustain concentrated loads imposed
o serve as attachments for equipment, flooring and the like
o transmit loads to adjacent structural members
 simple frames – serve merely to maintain the shape of the fuselage. These will not be
subjected to stress
 intermediate frames – act as anchorage for medium weight equipment, control systems
and the like. Similar to simple frame but must be reinforced locally to carry the load and
reduce deflections to a minimum
 main frames – large external loads are supplied through the landing gear, powerplant or
wing structure.
 Stringers should be continuous
 Spherical shape – ideal for a structure designed to withstand internal pressure most
efficiently
 Cylinder with partly spherical ends is the best compromise
 Frames distance – 10-24 inches apart

Daniel Raymer book

 It is in conceptual design that the basic questions of configuration arrangement size and weight,
and performance are answered.
 Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are over. The big questions
such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved.
o Testing is initiated in areas such as aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, and stability
and control. A mockup may be constructed at this point.
o Lofting is the mathematical modeling of the outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient
accuracy to insure proper fit between its different parts, even if they are designed by
different designers and possibly fabricated in different locations
 Detailed design – also called full scale development
o actual pieces to be fabricated are designed
o During detail design, that whole will be broken down into individual ribs, spars, and
skins, each of which must be separately designed and analyzed.
o Production design - Specialists determine how the airplane will be fabricated, starting
with the smallest and simplest subassemblies and building up to the final assembly
process
 The conceptual sketch can be used to estimate aerodynamics and weight fractions by
comparison to previous designs. These estimates are used to make a first estimate of the
required total weight and fuel weight to perform the design mission, by a process called "sizing
 Upper wing contributes about 2/3 of the total lift (upper surface of wing produces more lift than
bottom surface)
 Circulation – theoretical basis for the classical calculation of lift and drag due to lift

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 Greater circulation equals greater lift
 "Wetted Aspect Ratio," which is defined as the wing span squared divided by the total aircraft
wetted area. This is very similar to the aspect ratio except that it considers total wetted area
instead of wing reference area.
 Airfoil designed to operate in supersonic flows will have a sharp or nearly sharp leading edge to
prevent drag producing bow shock
 the lift force is perpendicular to the flight direction while the drag force is parallel to the flight
direction. The pitching moment is usually negative when measured about the aerodynamic
center, implying a nose-down moment
o applying high lift devices offers nose down moments
 The point about which the pitching moment remains constant for any angle of attack is called
the "aerodynamic center." The aerodynamic center is not the same as the airfoil's center of
pressure (or lift). The center of pressure is usually behind the aerodynamic center. The location
of the center of pressure varies with angle of attack for most airfoils.
 Reynolds number, the ratio between the dynamic and the viscous forces in a fluid
 A final means to represent the variation in drag is to plot the variation in drag coefficient with
the corresponding aircraft lift coefficient. This plot is known as a drag polar and provides a
snapshot of the aircraft’s performance for the entire flight envelope (at a given atmospheric
condition and altitude). Dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient results in a value
known as the lift-to-drag ratio or the aerodynamic efficiency. The point at which this is a
maximum yields the most efficient point at which to fly. Here the ratio of lift-to-drag is at a
maximum.
 The speed at which supersonic flow first appears on the airfoil is called the "Critical Mach
Number" (Mcrit)
 First consideration for airfoil selection is the best L/D ratio (design lift coefficient)
 point on the airfoil drag polar that is tangent to a line from the origin and closest to the vertical
axis
 Fat airfoils (round leading edge and t / c greater than about 14%) stall from the trailing edge.
The turbulent boundary layer increases with angle of attack. At around 10 deg the boundary
layer begins to separate, starting at the trailing edge and moving forward as the angle of attack
is further increased. The loss of lift is gradual. The pitching moment changes only a small
amount.
 Thinner airfoils stall from the leading edge. If the airfoil is of moderate thickness (about 6-14%),
the flow separates near the nose at a very small angle of attack, but immediately reattaches
itself so that little effect is felt. At some higher angle of attack, the flow fails to reattach, which
almost immediately stalls the entire airfoil. This causes an abrupt change in lift and pitching
moment.
 Very thin airfoils - The loss of lift is smooth, but large changes in pitching moment are
experienced
 Airfoil thickness ratio has a direct effect on drag, maximum lift, stall characteristics, and
structural weight. The drag increases with increasing thickness due to increased separation.
 Thickness also affects the structural weight of the wing. Statistical equations for wing weight
show that the wing structural weight varies approximately inversely with the square root of the
thickness ratio

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 The leading-edge sweep is the angle of concern in supersonic flight. To reduce drag, it is
common to sweep the leading edge behind the Mach cone. The sweep of the quarter-chord line
is the sweep most related to subsonic flight
 Wing aerodynamic center - .25C for subsonic and .4 for supersonic
 the maximum subsonic L/D of an aircraft increases approximately by the square root of an
increase in aspect ratio (when wing area and Swet/Sref are held constant). On the other hand,
the wing weight also increases with increasing aspect ratio, by about the same factor.
 Another effect of changing aspect ratio is a change in stalling angle. Due to the reduced effective
angle of attack at the tips, a lower-aspect-ratio wing will stall at a higher angle of attack than a
higher-aspect-ratio wing
 Oblique wing – combination of forward and aft swept wing. Has lower wave drag
 Wing sweep improves stability. A swept wing has a natural dihedral effect. In fact, it is
frequently necessary to use zero or negative dihedral on a swept wing to avoid excessive
stability.
 minimum drag due to lift, or "induced" drag, occurs when the lift is distributed in an elliptical
fashion
 "Geometric twist" is the actual change in airfoil angle of incidence, usually measured with
respect to the root airfoil.
 If a wing has "linear twist," the twist angle changes in proportion to the distance from the root
airfoil.
 "Aerodynamic twist" is the angle between the zero-lift angle of an airfoil and the zero-lift angle
of the root airfoil. If the identical airfoil is used from root to tip, the aerodynamic twist is the
same as the geometric twist
 Wing incidence angle is chosen to minimize drag at some operating condition, usually cruise.
The incidence angle is chosen such that when the wing is at the correct angle of attack for the
selected design condition, the fuselage is at the angle of attack for minimum drag
 Roughly speaking, 10 deg of sweep provides about 1 deg of effective dihedral.
 For a forward swept wing, the sweep angle produces a negative dihedral effect, requiring an
increased geometric dihedral in order to retain natural directional stability
 the position of the wing on the fuselage has an influence on the effective dihedral, with the
greatest effect provided by a high wing. This is frequently, and incorrectly, explained as a
pendulum effect (keel effect)
 Excessive dihedral effect produces "Dutch roll," a repeated side-to-side motion involving yaw
and roll. To counter a Dutch roll tendency, the vertical tail area must be increased, which
increases weight and drag.
 For low-speed aircraft, external struts can be used to greatly lower wing weight. However,
external struts add substantially to the drag.
 Since roughly two-thirds of the lift is contributed by the upper surface of the wing, it follows
that less drag impact will be seen if the strut disturbs the airflow on the lower surface of the
wing than if the strut is above the wing, as would be necessary for a strut-brace, low wing
 If the fuselage is roughly circular and fairings are not used, the mid-wing arrangement provides
the lowest drag. High- and low-wing arrangements must use fairings to attain acceptable
interference drag with a circular fuselage

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 To provide adequate engine and propeller clearance, the fuselage must be placed farther off the
ground than for a high-wing aircraft. While this adds to the landing-gear weight, it also provides
greater fuselage ground clearance. This reduces the aft-fuselage upsweep needed to attain the
required takeoff angle of attack. The lesser aft-fuselage upsweep reduces drag.
 The sweep of the wing tip also affects the drag. The tip vortex tends to be located approximately
at the trailing-edge of the wing tip, so an aft-swept wing tip, with a greater trailing edge span,
tends to have lower drag. However, the aft-swept wing tip tends to increase the wing torsional
loads.
 Gap is the vertical distance between the two wings
 Span ratio is the ratio between the shorter wing and the longer wing
 Stagger is the longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to each other.
 Decalage is the relative angle of incidence between the two wings of a biplane.
 Trim refers to the generation of a lift force that, by acting through some tail moment arm about
the center of gravity, balances some other moment produced by the aircraft
 An aft horizontal tail typically has a negative incidence angle of about 2-3 deg to balance the
wing pitching moment
 Due to end-plate effect, the T-tail allows a smaller vertical tail. The T-tail lifts the horizontal tail
clear of the wing wake and propwash, which makes it more efficient and hence allows reducing
its size. This also reduces buffet on the horizontal tail, which reduces fatigue for both the
structure and the pilot.
 H-tail serves to hide the hot engine nozzles from heatseeking missiles when viewed from an
angle off the rear of the aircraft.
 the ruddervators also produce a rolling moment toward the left-in opposition to the desired
direction of turn, an action called "adverse roll-yaw coupling."
o Adverse meaning roll direction is opposite of yaw direction
 Canards were used by the Wright brothers as a way of ensuring adequate control power, but fell
out of favor due to the difficulty of providing sufficient stability (pitch characteristics)
 Spin recovery
o the rotation must be stopped and the sideslip angle reduced, or the aircraft will
immediately enter another spin. This requires adequate rudder control even at the high
angles of attack seen in the spin. At least 1/3 of the rudder should be unblanketed.
o The dorsal fin improves tail effectiveness at high angles of sideslip by creating a vortex
that attaches to the vertical tail. This tends to prevent the high angles of sideslip seen in
spins, and augments rudder control in the spin. The ventral tail also tends to prevent
high sideslip, and has the extra advantage of being where it cannot be blanketed by the
wing wake. Ventral tails are also used to avoid lateral instability in high-speed flight.
 Another major structural element used to carry fuselage bending loads is the "keelson." This is
like the keel on a boat, and is a large beam placed at the bottom of the fuselage as shown in Fig.
8. 7. A keelson is frequently used to carry the fuselage bending loads through the portion of the
lower fuselage which is cut up by the wheel wells.
 The larger the propeller diameter, the more efficient the propeller will be. The limitation on
length is the propeller tip speed, which should be kept below sonic speed.
 Vtip-static = πnd/60
o n = rotational rate (rpm) obtained from engine data

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 o d =diameter
 Vtip-helical = √(Vtip2 + V2)
 At sea level the helical tip speed of a metal propeller should not exceed 950 fps. A wooden
propeller, which must be thicker, should be kept below 850 fps.
 As forward velocity increases, the angle of attack seen by the blades of a fixed-pitch propeller
will decrease.
 Most aircraft propellers have a "spinner," a cone- or bullet-shaped fairing at the hub. The inner
part of the propeller contributes very little to the thrust. A spinner pushes the air out to where
the propeller is more efficient. Also, a spinner streamlines the nacelle. Ideally, the spinner
should cover the propeller out to about 25% of the radius, although most spinners are not that
large.
 taildragger landing gear is inherently unstable
 With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g. is ahead of the main wheels so the aircraft is stable on the
ground and can be landed at a fairly large crab angle (i.e., nose not aligned with the runway)
 The c.g. (most forward and most aft) should fall between 16-25 deg back from vertical measured
from the main wheel location. If the c.g. is too far forward the aircraft will tend to nose over,
and if it is too far back it will tend to groundloop.
 The taildown angle should be about 10-15 deg with the gear in the static position (i.e., tires and
shock absorbers compressed the amount seen when the aircraft is stationary on the ground at
takeoff gross weight).
 The optimum range for the percent of the aircraft's weight which is carried by the nose wheel is
about 8-15%
 The "tipback angle" is the maximum aircraft nose-up attitude with the tail touching the ground
and the strut fully extended. To prevent the aircraft from tipping back on its tail, the angle off
the vertical from the main wheel position to the c.g. should be greater than the tipback angle or
15 deg, whichever is larger

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 The "overturn angle" is a measure of the aircraft's tendency to overturn when taxied around a
sharp corner. This is measured as the angle from the c.g. to the main wheel, seen from the rear
at a location where the main wheel is aligned with the nose wheel. For most aircraft this angle
should be no greater than 63 deg (54 deg for carrier-based aircraft).
 the desired strut-travel angle as about 7 deg. This optimal angle allows the tire to move upwards
and backwards when a large bump is encountered, thus tending to smooth out the ride.
However, any strut-travel angle from purely vertical to about 10 deg aft of vertical is acceptable.
Strut geometry in which the tire must move forward as it moves up is undesirable.
 The wing strake, or "Leading Edge Extension (LEX), is similar to the dorsal fin used on vertical
tails. Like dorsal fins, the LEX at high angle of attack produces a vortex that delays separation
and stall. Unfortunately, a LEX tends to promote pitch-up tendencies and so must be used with
care.
 The "specific strength" of a material is defined as the ultimate stress divided by the material
density. The "specific stiffness" is defined as the modulus of elasticity E divided by the material
density

14 CFR part 23

 Takeoff speeds. (1) The decision speed V1 is the calibrated airspeed on the ground at which, as a
result of engine failure or other reasons, the pilot is assumed to have made a decision to
continue or discontinue the takeoff. The speed V1 must be selected by the applicant but may
not be less than— (i) 1.10 Vs1; (ii) 1.10 VMC;
o A more descriptive name for V1 is the critical engine failure speed
 All engines operating takeoff distance. The all engine operating takeoff distance is the horizontal
distance required to takeoff and climb to a height of 50 feet above the takeoff surface
 Aircraft categories
o The normal category is limited to airplanes that have a seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or
less, and intended for nonacrobatic operation. Nonacrobatic operation includes: (1) Any
maneuver incident to normal flying; (2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and (3) Lazy eights,
chandelles, and steep turns, in which the angle of bank is not more than 60 degrees.
 Chandelle – 180 degree turn
o (b) The utility category is limited to airplanes that have a seating configuration,
excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500
pounds or less, and intended for limited acrobatic operation. Airplanes certificated in
the utility category may be used in any of the operations covered under paragraph (a) of
this section and in limited acrobatic operations. Limited acrobatic operation includes: (1)
Spins (if approved for the particular type of airplane); and (2) Lazy eights, chandelles,
and steep turns, or similar maneuvers, in which the angle of bank is more than 60
degrees but not more than 90 degrees.
o (c) The acrobatic category is limited to airplanes that have a seating configuration,
excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500

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 pounds or less, and intended for use without restrictions, other than those shown to be
necessary as a result of required flight tests.
o (d) The commuter category is limited to propeller-driven, multiengine airplanes that
have a seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of 19 or less, and a maximum
certificated takeoff weight of 19,000 pounds or less. The commuter category operation
is limited to any maneuver incident to normal flying, stalls (except whip stalls), and
steep turns, in which the angle of bank is not more than 60 degrees.
 Except for commuter category, airplanes may be type certificated in more than one category if
the requirements of each requested category are met.
 Each seat occupied, assuming a weight of 170 pounds for each occupant for normal and
commuter category airplanes, and 190 pounds for utility and acrobatic category airplanes,
except that seats other than pilot seats may be placarded for a lesser weight
 The empty weight and corresponding center of gravity must be determined by weighing the
airplane with— (1) Fixed ballast; (2) Unusable fuel determined under §23.959; and (3) Full
operating fluids, including— (i) Oil; (ii) Hydraulic fluid; and (iii) Other fluids required for normal
operation of airplane systems, except potable water, lavatory precharge water, and water
intended for injection in the engines.
 VSO and VS1 at maximum weight must not exceed 61 knots for— (1) Single-engine airplanes;
and (2) Multiengine airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less maximum weight that cannot meet the
minimum rate of climb specified in §23.67(a) (1) with the critical engine inoperative
 VR, is the speed at which the pilot makes a control input, with the intention of lifting the
airplane out of contact with the runway or water surface.
 VEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. VEF must be
selected by the applicant but must not be less than 1.05 VMC
 Each normal, utility, and acrobatic category reciprocating engine powered airplane of 6,000
pounds or less maximum weight must have a steady climb gradient at sea level of at least 8.3
percent for landplanes or 6.7 percent for seaplanes and amphibians
 Each normal, utility, and acrobatic category reciprocating engine powered airplane of more than
6,000 pounds maximum weight and turbine engine-powered airplanes in the normal, utility, and
acrobatic category must have a steady gradient of climb after takeoff of at least 4 percent
 VMC is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative,
it is possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and thereafter
maintain straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees. The
method used to simulate critical engine failure must represent the most critical mode of
powerplant failure expected in service with respect to controllability.
o At VMC, the rudder pedal force required to maintain control must not exceed 150
pounds and it must not be necessary to reduce power of the operative engine
 A minimum speed to intentionally render the critical engine inoperative must be established and
designated as the safe, intentional, one engine-inoperative speed, VSSE
 VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground, and is the calibrated airspeed during the
takeoff run at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the airplane using the rudder control alone (without the use of nosewheel
steering), as limited by 150 pounds of force, and using the lateral control to the extent of
keeping the wings level to enable the takeoff to be safely continued

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 o its path from the point at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at
which recovery to a direction parallel to the centerline is completed may not deviate
more than 30 feet laterally from the centerline at any point.
 limit loads (the maximum loads to be expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit loads
multiplied by prescribed factors of safety).
 a factor of safety of 1.5 must be used.
 Positive (up) and negative (down) gusts of 50 f.p.s. at VC must be considered at altitudes
between sea level and 20,000 feet. The gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 50 f.p.s. at
20,000 feet to 25 f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
 Positive and negative gusts of 25 f.p.s. at VD must be considered at altitudes between sea level
and 20,000 feet. The gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 25 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to 12.5
f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
 In addition, for commuter category airplanes, positive (up) and negative (down) rough air gusts
of 66 f.p.s. at VB must be considered at altitudes between sea level and 20,000 feet. The gust
velocity may be reduced linearly from 66 f.p.s. at 20,000 feet to 38 f.p.s. at 50,000 feet.
 Vc
o 33 √(W/S) (for normal, utility, and commuter category airplanes);
o 36 √(W/S) (for acrobatic category airplanes).
o For values of W/S more than 20, the multiplying factors may be decreased linearly with
W/S to a value of 28.6 where W/S=100.
 Vd
o 1.40 Vc min (for normal and commuter category airplanes);
o 1.50 VC min (for utility category airplanes); and
o 1.55 VC min (for acrobatic category airplanes)
o For values of W/S more than 20, the multiplying factors in paragraph (b)(2) of this
section may be decreased linearly with W/S to a value of 1.35 where W/S=100.
 Va
o VA may not be less than VS√n
o The value of VA need not exceed the value of VC used in design.
 Vb
o VB may not be less than the speed determined by the intersection of the line
representing the maximum positive lift, CNMAX, and the line representing the rough air
gust velocity on the gust V-n diagram, or VS1√ ng
o VB need not be greater than VC
 Limit maneuvering load factor
o 2.1+(24,000÷(W+10,000)) for normal and commuter category airplanes
o where W=design maximum takeoff weight, except that n need not be more than 3.8; (2)
4.4 for utility category airplanes; or (3) 6.0 for acrobatic category airplanes.
 The negative limit maneuvering load factor may not be less than— (1) 0.4 times the positive
load factor for the normal utility and commuter categories; or (2) 0.5 times the positive load
factor for the acrobatic category.
 certification for operation over 25,000 feet is requested, the airplane must be able to maintain a
cabin pressure altitude of not more than 15,000 feet in event of any probable failure or
malfunction in the pressurization system.

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  For each compartment to be used by the crew or passengers: (a) The materials must be at least
flame-resistant;
 Line, and fitting carrying flammable fluids, gas, or air in any area subject to engine fire
conditions must be at least fire resistant

 Fire extinguisher requirements

 Restart envelope. An altitude and airspeed envelope must be established for the airplane for in-
flight engine restarting and each installed engine must have a restart capability within that
envelope.
 Relight – restart engine
 Relight envelope -

The permissible limit in terms of altitude and IAS (indicated air speed) outside of which a relight in a gas
turbine engine is unlikely to take place and, hence, should be attempted only in emergency.

 Ground clearance. There must be a clearance of at least seven inches (for each airplane with
nose wheel landing gear) or nine inches (for each airplane with tail wheel landing gear) between
each propeller and the ground with the landing gear statically deflected and in the level, normal
takeoff, or taxing attitude, whichever is most critical
 Water clearance. There must be a clearance of at least 18 inches between each propeller and
the water
 Structural clearance. There must At least one inch radial clearance between the blade tips and
the airplane structure, plus any additional radial clearance necessary to prevent harmful
vibration;
 The total usable capacity of the fuel tanks must be enough for at least one-half hour of
operation at maximum continuous power
 In the event of a complete loss of the primary electrical power generating system, the battery
must be capable of providing at least 30 minutes of electrical power to those loads that are
essential to continued safe flight and landing. The 30 minute time period includes the time
needed for the pilots to recognize the loss of generated power and take appropriate load
shedding action.

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 Left and right position lights. Left and right position lights must consist of a red and a green light
spaced laterally as far apart as practicable and installed on the airplane such that, with the
airplane in the normal flying position, the red light is on the left side and the green light is on the
right side.
 The rear position light must be a white light mounted as far aft as practicable on the tail or on
each wing tip.
 Each anticollision light must be either aviation red or aviation white (flashing)
 The never-exceed speed VNE must be established so that it is— (1) Not less than 0.9 times the
minimum value of VD
 The maximum structural cruising speed VNO must be established so that it is— (1) Not less than
the minimum value of VC
 maximum operating limit speed (VMO/ MMO-airspeed or Mach number must be established as
a speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any regime of flight (climb, cruise, or descent)
unless a higher speed is authorized for flight test or pilot training operations.
 A maximum operating altitude limitation of not more than 25,000 feet must be established for
pressurized airplanes
 Markings for airspeed
o For the never-exceed speed VNE, a radial red line.
o For the caution range, a yellow arc extending from the red line specified in paragraph
(b)(1) of this section to the upper limit of the green arc specified in paragraph (b)(3) of
this section
o For the normal operating range, a green arc with the lower limit at VS1 with maximum
weight and with landing gear and wing flaps retracted, and the upper limit at the
maximum structural cruising speed VNO
o For the flap operating range, a white arc with the lower limit at VS0 at the maximum
weight, and the upper limit at the flaps-extended speed VFE
o For reciprocating multienginepowered airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less maximum
weight, for the speed at which compliance has been shown with §23.69(b) relating to
rate of climb at maximum weight and at sea level, a blue radial line.
 The operating maneuvering speed, VO; and (b) The maximum landing gear operating speed VLO.

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ADDITIONAL:

VA means design maneuvering speed.

 Design Maneuvering Speed is the speed beyond which it may be unsafe to apply full deflection
of the flight controls. Doing so may result in structural damage, up to and including having the
wings or other important parts depart the aircraft. Obviously, this would be less than ideal.
 It’s also important to understand that Va is defined by the manufacturer based on the maximum
gross weight of the aircraft.

VB means design speed for maximum gust intensity.

VC means design cruising speed.
VD means design diving speed.
VDF/MDF means demonstrated flight diving speed.
VEF means the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.
VF means design flap speed.

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VFC/MFC means maximum speed for stability characteristics.
VFE means maximum flap extended speed.
VFTO means final takeoff speed.
VH means maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power.
VLE means maximum landing gear extended speed.
VLO means maximum landing gear operating speed.
VLOF means lift-off speed.
 Lift-off Speed (VLOF) is the airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.
VMC means minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative.
VMO/MMO means maximum operating limit speed.
VMU means minimum unstick speed.
 VMU is achieved by pitching the aircraft up to the maximum (tail on the runway, for aircraft that
are are geometrically-limited) during the takeoff roll (Refer to Figure 2 below). The speed at
which the aircraft first lifts off is VMU. Therefore, lift-off is not possible prior to VMU.
 VMU is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the airplane can safely lift off the ground,
and continue the takeoff.
VNE means never-exceed speed. = 0.9Vd
VNO means maximum structural cruising speed.
VR means rotation speed.
Vra, which is defined as the “rough air” speed, or the “turbulence penetration speed”. / prevent
overstressing the aircraft
VREF means reference landing speed.
VS means the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable.
VS0 means the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration.
VS1 means the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration.
VSR means reference stall speed.
VSRO means reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSR1 means reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
VSW means speed at which onset of natural or artificial stall warning occurs.
Vsse – Minimum Single-Engine Speed

This is the speed for multi-engine aircraft at which, as defined by the manufacturer, it’s safe
to intentionally operate on only one engine.

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VTOSS means takeoff safety speed for Category A rotorcraft.
VX means speed for best angle of climb.
VY means speed for best rate of climb.
V1 means the maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g., apply
brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
V1 also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine at VEF, at
which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required height above the takeoff surface
within the takeoff distance.
A more descriptive name for V1 is the critical engine failure speed. If an engine fails before V1 is
achieved, the take-off must be stopped. If an engine fails after V1is reached, thetake-off can still be
achieved
V2 means takeoff safety speed.
V2min means minimum takeoff safety speed.

 Large transport aeroplane hydraulic systems usually operate with a system pressure of
approximately 3000 psi
 Spar web takes shear loads
 High wing loading = high mass ratio (for gust load factor)
 Exceeding maximum limit load factor results in structural damage
 Exceeding maximum ultimate load factor results in structural failure
 Propeller advance ratio or pitch ratio J = V/nd
 E is directly proportional to G
o E=2G(1+2 u)
o U is Poissons ratio
 Landing gear hydroplaning friction = 0.05-0.15
 1st step in designing an aircraft – specifications
 Vmax = 1.2 vc
 Hoerner wing tips is the most widely used low drag wing tip
 Structural System-Any deformable solid body which is capable of carrying loads and transmitting
these loads to other parts of the body.
 Kinematics–deals with pure motion of rigid bodies
 Kinetics–relates the motion to applied force
 Principle of moments (varignons theorem) - The moment of a force is equal to the sum of the
moments of its components.
 m=2j-3 stable structure
 r<3m determinate
 gull wing – wing root is inclined to the fuselage
 spring tab – spring assists when control forces become too high in high speed flight
 momentum theory

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 o 1st fundamental theory by R.E froude
o deals with the changes in energy of the mass of the air affected by the propeller
o the propeller is assumed to be a disk which exerts a uniform pressure or thrust over the
cross section of the air column passing through the disk
 drzeweicki theory / blade element theory
o considering the blades as being composed of infinite number of small airfoils
 j ratio (pitch ratio or advance ratio)
o v/nd
o determines the efficiency of a propeller
 To counter the pitching moment of the wing, the tail surfaces produce a lift force generally in
the downward direction. The induced drag of the tail is called "trim drag.
 the profile drag increases as the angle of attack is increased
 Changing the lift on the wing changes the velocities above and below it. This change in local
airflow velocity causes a small change in skin-friction drag. Sometimes called a "supervelocity"
effect, this is minor and is usually ignored.
 Drag polar - standard presentation format for aerodynamic data used in performance
calculations. The drag polar is simply a plot of the coefficient of lift vs the coefficient of drag
 Actual airfoils have lift-curve slopes between about 90 and lOO%of the theoretical value. This
percentage of the theoretical value is sometimes called the "airfoil efficiency (17).
 Sweeping the wing reduces the maximum lift
 Sweeping the wing back decreases maneuverability of the airplane since aileron control is
impaired and the damping moments in roll are impaired
 Aft flaps do not increase the angle of stall. In fact, they tend to reduce the stall angle by
increasing the pressure drop over the top of the airfoil, which promotes flow separation. To
increase the stall angle, some form of leading-edge device is required
 Parasite drag estimation
o CDO = Cfe Swet / Sref
o Cfe – equivalent skin friction coefficient
o Cfe is multiplied by the aircraft’s wetted area to obtain an initial estimate of parasite
drag
o Suitable for initial subsonic analysis
 The actual cross sectional shape at a given longitudinal location has no effect on wave drag at
Mach 1. All that matters is the cross sectional area at each longitudinal location and the way
that the cross sectional area varies longitudinally
 Critical mach number occurs when shocks first form on the aircraft
 Drag divergent mach number is the mach number which the formation of shocks begins to
substantially affect the drag
 In sailplane terminology, the glide ratio is the ratio between horizontal distance travelled and
altitude lost and is equal to the lift to drag ratio
 Sink rate – vertical velocity in gliding flight = vsin theta
 Sailplane pilots fly at minimum sink speed when they are in lift. When the lift dies, they
accelerate to the velocity for best glide ratio to cover the most ground while looking for the next
lift. An instrument called a variometer tells the sailplane pilots when they are in lift
 Velocity – sink speed diagram is also called speed polar or hodograph

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 The required obstacle clearance is 50 ft for military and small civil aircraft and 35 ft for
commercial aircraft
 Balanced field length – is the total take off distance including obstacle clearance when an engine
fails at decision speed v1, the speed at which, upon an engine failure, the aircraft can either
brake to a halt or continue the take off in the same total distance
 Thrust reverse cannot be operated at slow speeds because of reingestion of the exhaust gases
 Beam – carry transverse loading
o a structural member that supports loads perpendicular to its longitudinal axis is referred
to as a beam
 Flange carries bending loads
 Damage tolerance means that the structure has been evaluated to ensure that should serious
fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage occur within the operational life of the airplane, the
remaining structure can withstand reasonable loads without failure or excessive structural
deformation until the damage is detected.
 Fail-safe means that the structure has been evaluated to assure that catastrophic failure is not
probable after fatigue failure or obvious partial failure of a single, principal structural element.
 Safe-life means that the structure has been evaluated to be able to withstand the repeated
loads of variable magnitude expected during its service life without detectable cracks.
 Principal structural elements are those which contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground,
and pressurization loads, and whose failure could result in catastrophic failure of the airplane.
o Wing and empennage
o Fuselage
o Landing gear and attachments
o Engine mounts
 Critical structural elements are those elements whose failure would result in catastrophic failure
of the airplane.
 Primary structure is that structure which carries flight, ground, or pressure loads.
 Secondary structure is that structure which carries only air or inertial loads generated on or
within the secondary structure.
 Single load path is where the applied loads are eventually distributed through a single member
within an assembly, the failure of which would result in the loss of the structural integrity of the
component involved.
 Multiple load path is identified with redundant structures in which (with the failure of individual
elements) the applied loads would be safely distributed to other load carrying members.
 Reliability refers to detail designs or methodologies which service history has demonstrated to
be reliable.
 Probability refers to a probability of occurrence of an event consistent with past successful
experience.
 Scatter factor. A life reduction factor used in the interpretation of fatigue analysis and test
results.
 2024 – used in tension applications; lower wing surface
 7075 – used in compression applications; upper wing surface

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 Flight deck windows - They are constructed from toughened glass panels attached to each side
of a clear vinyl interlayer.
 The maximum load factor which a pilot can withstand is about 8.0
 Load factor = total lift of wing and tail / gross weight
 Rapid maneuvers and air gusts are considered dynamic loads – loads that are applied rapidly
that causes vibrations or shock
 lift curve slope formula given mach number less than 1. Numerator can also be 4 for supersonic
flight

 Solid propellant rocket – simple in construction and operation. Has solid fuel
 Liquid propellant rocket – more efficient but more complex in its construction and operation
 The slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of length l to the radius of gyration k, represented
as l/k. When the slenderness ratio exceeds a value of 100 for a strong slim column, failure by
buckling can be expected. Columns of stiffer and more brittle materials will buckle at lower
slenderness ratios
 Bar elements - Are one-dimensional structural members which are capable of carrying and
transmitting bending, shearing, torsional, and axial loads of a combination of all four
 The cruise ceiling, on the other hand, is the altitude at which the maximum climb rate is 300 fpm
 Shear center is a point on the beam-section where the application of loads does not cause its
twisting. The shear center position is dependent on the cross-section of the beam. For instance,
shear center and center of gravity are the same in a symmetrical section, but it may not coincide
with the centroid in case of an unsymmetrical cross-section
 The elastic center is the point at which an applied force produces pure translation, and an
applied moment produces pure rotation about the same axis.

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