CS25C03 New Edition

2025 - 2026

ESSENTIALS
OF COMPUTING
with LAB MANUAL
(As per the Anna University Syllabus)
FOR I SEMESTER (CSE, IT & AIDS) STUDENTS

Regulations 2025
(CBCS Pattern)

Dr. C. DHAYA,
Professor and Head, Department of CSE,
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur.

Mr. K. CHAIRMADURAI,
Assistant Professor, Department of CSE,
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur.

Ms. V. THAMARAISELVI,
Assistant Professor, Department of CSE,
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur.

With Part - A Q & A and Part - B Questions

© All rights reserved by the publisher.

First Edition: September 2025

All rights reserved. No part of this Book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recoding or by any information storage
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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 PREFACE
The book “Essentials of Computing” has been designed to serve as a foundational text for
first-year B.E. students. It follows the syllabus of CS25C03 – Essentials of Computing and aims to introduce
learners to the basic principles of computers, computational thinking, problem-solving, programming,
and app development.
The primary goal of this book is to make computing concepts simple, clear, and practical for
beginners. Each unit of the syllabus is carefully explained with definitions, detailed notes, examples, and
illustrations. To strengthen learning, the book includes practical exercises and activities in every unit,
enabling students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios.
This book is structured into six units:
 Chapter 1 introduces computers, their history, classification, applications, and basic organization,
along with an introduction to data representation and spreadsheets. Practical exercises include
documentation, presentation creation, and spreadsheet operations with data visualization.
 Chapter 2 focuses on computational thinking, decomposition, abstraction, number systems,
and Boolean logic. Activities include solving number system problems, applying propositional
logic, and demonstrations of computational thinking.
 Chapter 3 develops problem-solving skills through algorithms, algorithm representation, and
fundamental algorithms. Exercises involve algorithm development for simple mathematical
problems such as factorial computation, Fibonacci generation, and base conversions.
 Chapter 4 presents programming languages, paradigms, and program design tools. Activities
include designing flowcharts and pseudocode for mathematical problems.
 Chapter 5 provides hands-on experience with Scratch programming to develop creativity and
logic through animations, games, and problem-solving applications. Practical exercises cover
functional block creation, drawing and painting operations, Scratch animations, artistic
patterns, and small game development.
 Chapter 6 explores the basics of app development, including modeling, modularization,
algorithmic thinking, testing, and debugging. Activities include sample app development for
solving simple societal problems.
The book has been written in simple language with step-by-step explanations, diagrams, and
examples to ensure that every student, regardless of prior computing knowledge, can understand and
apply the concepts.
It is my sincere hope that this book will not only help students to excel academically but also inspire
them to explore the exciting world of computing, programming, and application development.
AUTHORS
,
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words are bound and knowledge is limited to praise Goddess

ADHIPARASAKTHI and Guru ARULTHIRU BANGARU SIDDHAR, The most
Beneficent, The Merciful, Gracious and the Compassionate whose bounteous blessing
and exaltation flourished our thoughts and thrived our ambition. You have given us
the power to believe in ourselves and pursue our dreams.
First and foremost, we express our profound gratitude and deepest regards
to our institution Adhiparasakthi Engineering College, Melmaruvathur for the
excellent infrastructure and a wonderful ambience that helped us very much in bring
out this book. It is my pleasure and proud privilege to express my gratitude to the
Correspondent Dr. G. B. Senthil Kumar for his support and encouragement.
We cannot express enough appreciations to our Principal Dr. J. Raja and Dean
Dr. V. Ramasamy for their timely support throughout the journey of writing.
I, Dr. C. Dhaya thank my sisters, C. Renuga & C. Vasugi for their love,
encouragement, and concern to me. A man cannot long and happily live without his
friends. My cheers and heartfelt thanks to my best friend, Mr. Saravanan Senthil
Kumar, who’s counseling and unconditional support at each stage of this long journey
enabled me to overcome the most persistent obstacles in my life. His words of
encouragement during challenging times, and genuine enthusiasm for my progress
have been an invaluable source of motivation. A special note of appreciation goes to
our colleagues and peers who provided insightful discussions and feedback, shaping
the content and direction of this book. Very special thanks to our research
guide Dr. G. Zayaraz, Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Pondicherry Engineering College. He has always shown us the correct path
whenever we had deviated from our goals and also provided much needed motivation
to us. If we were to name persons who deserve the most thanks, it would be our
parents Late T. Chinnathambi and Mrs. C. Jayalakshmi and my brother
Late. T. C. Murali. Nothing could ever eclipse their unconditional love and consistent
support. We can never pay back for the umpteen sacrifices they have made for us.
There are not enough words to thank them, but without them we wouldn’t be where
we are today. Finally, we would like to thank Mother Nature, for providing us with
the necessary inspiration to stimulate our brain.
 I, K. Chairmadurai, am profoundly grateful to God for the strength, wisdom,
and inspiration that guided me throughout the creation of this book. My heartfelt
appreciation goes to my dear parents Mr. J. Kalirajan and Ms. K. Selvamary
and my dear sister Ms. K. Muthupriya, whose unwavering love, encouragement,
and moral support have always been my pillars of strength. Without their blessings
and motivation, this work would not have been possible. I extend my sincere thanks
to Dr. C. Dhaya, Head of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
for invaluable guidance, mentorship, and encouragement during the preparation of
this book. I also wish to acknowledge my faculty colleagues, whose knowledge,
discussions, and constant support enriched the content of this work. Their
contributions have been truly instrumental and deeply appreciated. Finally, I express
my gratitude to my students, who have been a constant source of inspiration. Their
curiosity and eagerness to learn motivated me to present concepts in a simple and
practical manner.
I, V. Thamaraiselvi, I would like to praise and thank GOD, and my Head of
the Department Dr. C. Dhaya, the almighty, who has granted countless blessing,
knowledge, and opportunity to the writer, so that I have been finally able to
accomplish this book. I want to extend my heartfelt appreciation to my dear, my
loving Spouse and my children’s. Their unwavering love and encouragement have
been the solid foundation of support during this remarkable journey.
AUTHORS
 SYLLABUS

CS25C03 - ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

UNIT - 1 : COMPUTERS
Computer, Characteristics of Computers, History of Computers, Classification of
Computers, Applications of Computers, Basic Organization of a Computer. Data
Representation, Using spread sheets for basic operations on data and visualize the
data.
Practical:
1. Office Software for documentation and presentation
2. Spread sheets for calculations and data. Visualization

UNIT - 2 COMPUTATIONAL THINKING

What is Computational Thinking, Decomposition, Abstraction, Real World Information
to Computable Data, Number Systems, Conversions among Number systems, what is
Logic, Boolean Logic, Applications of Propositional Logic.
Practical:
1. Solving problems based on number systems and logics.
2. Virtual Demonstration of Computational thinking

UNIT - 3: PROBLEM SOLVING BASICS

Problem Definition, Logical Reasoning, Decomposition, Software Design Concept of
an Algorithm, Algorithm Representation - Algorithm Discovery - Iterative Structures
- Recursive Structures - Efficiency and Correctness - Implementation of Algorithms
- Fundamental Algorithms: Exchanging the values of two variables, Counting,
Summation of a set of numbers, Factorial computation, Generation of Fibonacci
Sequence, Reversing the digits of an Integer, Base Conversion.
Practical:
Algorithm Development for simple mathematical problems

UNIT - 4: PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Program Development Life Cycle, Program Design Tools, Algorithms, Flowcharts,
Pseudocodes, Role of Algorithms, Programming Languages, Programming Paradigms
Traditional Programming Concepts, Procedural Units, Language Implementation,
Declarative Programming.
Practical:
Flowchart design for simple mathematical problems
UNIT - 5: SCRATCH PROGRAMMING
What is Scratch, Scratch Programming Environment, Paint Editor, Scratch Blocks,
Arithmetic Operators and Functions, Use Motion Commands, Pen Commands and
Easy Draw, Looks Palette, Sound Palette, Power of Repeat, Data Types, Variables,
Getting Input from Users.
Making Decisions, Comparison Operators, Decision Structures, Logical Operators,
Repetition, Loop Blocks, Stop Commands, Counters, Nested Loops, Recursion, String
Processing, String Manipulation, Lists, Dynamic Lists, Numerical Lists, Searching
and Sorting Lists.
Practical:
1. Creation of Functional Block for simple mathematical problems
2. Drawing and Painting operations
3. Scratch Animation for understanding Conditional and Loop statements.
4. Draw artistic, geometric patterns and create games.
5. Scratch Programs for applied scientific computing and data manipulations

UNIT - 6 APP DEVELOPMENT

Building Apps using problem, solving techniques on any app development platform,
Modeling, incremental and iterative, reuse, modularization, algorithmic thinking,
abstracting and modularizing, decomposition, testing and debugging.
Practical:
Sample App Developments for societal problems.
 CONTENTS

Chapter - 1 : Computers 1.1 - 1.48

1.1 Computer 1.1
1.2 Characteristics of Computers 1.2
1.3 History of Computers 1.3
1.3.1 Timeline of the History of Computers 1.4
1.3.2 Generations of Computers 1.6
1.4 Classification of Computers 1.13
1.5 Applications of Computers 1.23
1.6 Basic Organization of a Computer 1.31
1.7 Data Representation 1.36
1.8 Using Spreadsheets for Basic Operations on Data and Visualization 1.41
Two Mark Questions and Answers 1.46
Review Questions 1.48

Chapter - 2 : Computational Thinking 2.1 - 2.62

2.1 What Is Computational Thinking? 2.1
2.2 Solving Problems 2.13
2.2.1 Decomposition: Software Design 2.13
2.2.2 Decomposition: Other Uses 2.18
2.2.3 Abstraction: Class Diagrams 2.20
2.2.4 Abstraction: Use Case Diagrams 2.21
2.3 How Real-World Information becomes Computable Data 2.23
2.4 Number System 2.35
2.4.1 Conversions among Number systems 2.38
2.5 What is Logic? 2.47
2.5.1 Boolean Logic 2.48
2.5.2 Applications of Propositional Logic 2.56
Two Mark Questions and Answers 2.60
Review Questions 2.62
Chapter - 3 : Computational Thinking 3.1 - 3.41

3.1 Problem Definition 3.1

3.2 Logical Reasoning 3.5
3.3 Decomposition 3.8
3.4 Software Design 3.10
3.5 The Concept of an Algorithm 3.13
3.6 Algorithm Representation 3.15
3.7 Algorithm Discovery 3.20
3.8 Iterative Structures (Loops) 3.23
3.9 Recursive Structures 3.25
3.10 Efficiency and Correctness of an Algorithm 3.27
3.11 Fundamental Algorithms 3.31
3.11.1 Exchanging the Values of Two Variables 3.31
3.11.2 Counting 3.32
3.11.3 Summation of a Set of Numbers 3.34
3.11.4 Factorial Computation 3.35
3.11.5 Generation of Fibonacci Sequence 3.36
3.11.6 Reversing the Digits of an Integer 3.37
3.11.7 Base Conversion (Decimal to Binary) 3.38
Two Mark Questions and Answers 3.40
Review Questions 3.41

Chapter - 4 : Programming Languages 4.1 - 4.44

4.1 Introduction to Programming Languages 4.1

4.2 Program Development Life Cycle 4.3
4.3 Program Design Tools 4.7
4.3.1 Algorithm 4.7
4.3.2 Flow charts 4.9
4.3.3 Pseudocode 4.13
4.4 Program Control Structures 4.15
4.5 Programming Languages 4.18
4.5.1 Types of Programming Languages 4.18
4.5.2 Generations of Programming Languages 4.19
4.5.3 Evolution of Programming languages 4.19
4.6 Programming Paradigm 4.20
4.6.1 Types of Programming Paradigms 4.20
4.7 Traditional Programming Concepts 4.29
4.8 Procedural Units 4.32
4.9 Language Implementation 4.37
Two Mark Questions and Answers 4.42
Review Questions 4.44

Chapter - 5 : Scratch Programming 5.1 - 5.93

5.1 Introduction to Scratch Programming 5.1

5.2 Scratch Programming Environment 5.3
5.2.1 Main Components of Scratch Environment 5.4
5.3 Paint Editor 5.13
5.4 Scratch Blocks 5.16
5.5 Arithmetic Operators and Functions 5.19
5.6 Use Motion Commands 5.21
5.7 Pen Commands and Easy Draw 5.23
5.8 Looks Palette 5.25
5.9 Sound Palette 5.28
5.10 The Power of Repeat 5.31
5.11 Data types in Scratch 5.33
5.12 Variables 5.36
5.13 Getting input from users 5.41
5.14 Making Decisions in Scratch 5.43
5.14.1 Comparison Operators in Scratch 5.46
5.14.2 Decision Structures 5.48
5.14.3 Logical Operators 5.52
5.15 Repetition 5.56
5.15.1 A Deep Exploration of Loops 5.56
5.15.2 Stop commands 5.59
5.15.3 Counters 5.62
5.15.4 Nested Loops 5.64
5.15.5 Recursion 5.66
5.16 String Processing 5.68
5.17 Lists 5.74
5.17.1 Dynamic Lists 5.80
5.17.2 Numerical Lists 5.84
5.17.3 Searching and Sorting Lists 5.86
Two Mark Questions and Answers 5.92
Review Questions 5.93

Chapter - 6 : App Development 6.1 - 6.35

6.1 Introduction to App Development 6.1

6.2 Building Apps using Problem-Solving Techniques on any App
Development Platform 6.4
6.2.1 Modeling 6.8
6.2.2 Incremental and Iterative Development 6.13
6.2.3 Reuse 6.17
6.2.4 Modularization 6.20
6.3 Algorithmic Thinking 6.22
6.3.1 Abstracting and Modularizing 6.22
6.3.2 Decomposition 6.26
6.4 Testing and Debugging 6.28
Two Mark Questions and Answers 6.33
Review Questions 6.35
 1

COMPUTERS

SYLLABUS:
 Computer  Characteristics of Computers
 History of Computers  Classification of Computers
 Applications of Computers  Basic Organization of a Computer
 Data Representation  Using spread sheets for basic operations on data
and visualize the data.

1.1 COMPUTER
The term computer is derived from the word compute, which means to
calculate.
A computer is an electronic machine used for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.
In simple words, a computer is an electronic device that performs diverse
operations using instructions to process the information in order to achieve the
desired results.

Figure 1.1 Computer working process

1.2 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Figure 1.2 Example of Computer working process

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

The human race developed computers so that they could perform intricate
operations, such as calculation and data processing, or simply for entertainment.
Today, much of the world's infrastructure depends on computers and it has
profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let us discuss some of the
characteristics of computers, which make them an essential part of every emerging
technology and a desirable tool in human development.
i. Speed: Computers process data at an extremely fast rate-millions of
instructions per second. In a few seconds, a computer can perform a complex
task that a normal human being may take days or even years to complete.
The speed of a computer is calculated in megahertz (MHz), that is, 1 million
instructions per second. At present, a powerful computer can perform
billions of operations in just 1 second.
ii. Accuracy: Besides efficiency, computers are accurate as well. The level of
accuracy depends on the instructions and the type of machine being used.
Since a computer is capable of doing only what it is instructed to do, faulty
instructions for data processing may lead to faulty results. This is known
as Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO).
iii. Diligence: A computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human
traits of tiredness and lack of concentration. If 4 million calculations have
to be performed, then the computer will perform the last four millionth
calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first calculation.
COMPUTERS 1.3

iv. Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of performance of a

computer, which is measured against some predetermined standard for
operation without any failure. The major reason for reliability of the
computers is that, at the hardware level, it does not require any human
intervention between its processing operations. Moreover, computers have
built-in diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous monitoring of
the system.
v. Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and can
recall the required information almost instantaneously. The main memory
of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain amount of
information; therefore, the data are stored on secondary storage devices,
such as magnetic tapes or disks. Small sections of the data can be accessed
very quickly and brought into the storage devices as and when required for
processing.
vi. Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform
multiple tasks simultaneously with great ease. For example, at one moment,
they can be used to draft a letter, another moment they can be used to play
music and in between, they can be used to print a document as well. All this
work is possible by changing the program (computer instructions).
vii. Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of development, computers used
to be isolated machines. With the tremendous growth in computer
technologies, computers today have the capability to connect with each other.
This has made the sharing of costly resources like printers possible. Apart
from device sharing, data and information can also be shared among groups
of computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.

1.3 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The invention process of the computer started around 3000 years ago. The
computer started out as an "Abacus". An 'Abacus' is a rack made of wood with two
wires running parallel to each other. On the wires there are beads. By moving the
beads anyone can solve simple math problems. Next, there was the 'Astrolabe', used
for navigating. The first digital computer was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal. It
consisted of numbers entered in dials but, it could only add. However in 1671, a
computer was invented that was eventually built in 1694. The man to credit for
this invention is Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Unlike Pascal's computer, Leibniz's
could add and multiply.
1.4 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

1.3.1 Timeline of the history of computers

 3000 B.C. : Abacus was invented in Babylon
 1800 B.C. : Babylonians invented algorithms for number problems
 500 B.C. : Egyptians made bead and wire abacus
 200 B.C. : Japanese started using computing trays
 1617: John Napier, a Scottish inventor, had shown how to divide by
subtraction and how to multiply by addition
 1624: Wilhelm Schickard invented the first four function calculator-clock
at Heidelberg University
 1642: Blaise Pascal invented the first numerical calculating machines that
were built in Paris
 1780: Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity
 1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone
 1886: William Burroughs developed the first commercial mechanical adding
machine
 1896: Hollerith constructed a sorting machine
 1925: Vannevar Bush builds the large scale analog calculator, the differential
analyzer
 1927: The first public radio-telephone became operational between London
and New York
 1931: Konard Zuse built the Z1 or the first calculator in Germany
 1936: Alan M. Turning made a machine defined to be capable of computing
any calculatable function
 1937: George Stibitz built the first binary calculator at Bell Telephone
Laboratories
 1938: Hewlett-Packard Company made electric equipments
 1948: IBM introduced the 604 electronic calculator
 1953: Remington-Rand developed the first high-speed printer
 1958: NEC, Japan developed the first electronic Computer
COMPUTERS 1.5

 1960: Removable disks appear for the first time

 1972: Intel introduced an 8 bit microprocessor
 1976: Perkin-Elmer and Gould SEL introduced super mini computers

Figure 1.3 Timeline of the history of computers

The names with their corresponding years as shown in Figure 1.3.
1614 - Napier's Bones (John Napier's logarithm-based calculating rods)
1620 - Schickard's Calculator (Wilhelm Schickard's calculating clock)
1642 - Pascaline (Blaise Pascal's mechanical calculator)
1822 / 1826 - Charles Babbage's Difference Engine
1936 - Konrad Zuse's Z1 Computer (first programmable computer)
1.6 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

1941 - Z3 (Konrad Zuse's electromechanical computer)

1943 - Colossus (World War II code-breaking computer)
1946 - ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
1951 - UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I - first commercial
computer)
1956 - IBM 704 (first mass-produced computer with floating-point arithmetic
hardware)
1968 - Hewlett-Packard 9100A (first scientific desktop calculator)
1975 - Altair 8800 (first personal computer kit)
1977 - Commodore PET (one of the first all-in-one personal computers)
1981 - IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC)
1986 - IBM PC/AT (Advanced Technology model, widely adopted in business)
2003 - AMD Athlon 64 (first 64-bit consumer CPU)
2006 - Apple MacBook (popular modern laptop series)

1.3.2 Generations of Computers

The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to the
different generations of computing devices. In computer terminology, the word
generation is described as a stage of technological development or innovation. A
major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, and more efficient
and reliable devices, characterizes each generation of computer. According to the
technology used, there are five generations of computers that are discussed in the
following sections.
COMPUTERS 1.7

Figure 1.4 Generations of Computers

a) First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
The period of first generation was from 1940-1956. The computers of first
generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry
for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot
of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very
expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch
cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The
computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
1.8 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

 Generates lot of heat

 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumes lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-750

Figure 1.5 a) Vacuum Tube b) First Generation Computer

b) Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
The period of second generation was from 1956-1963. In this generation,
transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in
size, more reliable and faster than the first-generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and
magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
COMPUTERS 1.9

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages

like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generates less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Figure 1.6 a) Transistor b) Second Generation Computer

1.10 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

c) Third Generation (1964 to Early 1970s): Integrated Circuits

The period of third generation was from 1964-1971. The computers of third
generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has
many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller
in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-
II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this
generation.
The main features of third generation are:
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
COMPUTERS 1.11

Figure 1.7 a) Integrated Circuit b)Third Generation Computer

d) Fourth Generation (Early 1970s to 1980): Microprocessors

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth
generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having
about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their associated circuits on
a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this
generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were
used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.
The main features of fourth generation are:
 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
1.12 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Figure 1.8 a) Microprocessor b) Fourth Generation Computer

e) Fifth Generation (From 1980 to Present): Artificial Intelligence
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in
the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings.
All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
The main features of fifth generation are:
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
COMPUTERS 1.13

 Advancement in Superconductor technology

 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 Notebook
 Ultrabook
 Chromebook

Figure 1.9 a) Artificial Intelligence b) Fifth Generation Computer

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

A computer is a device that transforms unusable data into information.
According to the set of instructions the user gives it, it processes the input and
generates the desired outcome.
1.14 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Figure 1.10 Types of Computers

Modern digital computers are classified on the basis of their size and capacity.
The size and data handling capabilities of the various types of computers may be
used to categorize them into three groups.
1. Computers according to Size:
 Supercomputer.
 Mainframe computer.
 Personal computer.
 Workstation.
 Minicomputer.
2. Computers according to their Capacity to manage data:
 Digital computer.
 Hybrid computer.
 Analog computer.
3. Classification according to Purpose
 General purpose computers
 Special-purpose computer.
COMPUTERS 1.15

Figure 1.11 Classification of Computers

a) Classification according to Size
There are four different sorts of computers based on their size and how they
are configured to operate:
1. Supercomputers

Figure 1.12 Supercomputer

1.16 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

The most efficient computers in terms of processing data and performance

are supercomputers. These computers are used for research and exploratory
purposes. Supercomputers are exceedingly large and highly expensive. It can only
fit in large, air-conditioned spaces.
Supercomputers are used for a range of tasks, such as space exploration,
seismic research, and the testing of nuclear weapons.
Supercomputer Features:
 They make use of AI (Artificial intelligence)
 They are the fastest and strongest;
 They are very costly.
 They are enormous in size.
 They are employed by companies that manufacture goods.
 They process information at a rapid rate.
Examples:
 Fugaku (Japan)
 IBM Blue Gene
 Cray XT5
2. Mainframe Computers

Figure 1.13 Mainframe Computers

Despite being less efficient than supercomputers, mainframe computers are
nevertheless extremel y expensive. Large corp orat ions and government al
COMPUTERS 1.17

organizations frequently employ mainframe computers to run everyday operations.

They have the ability to store and analyze a lot of data. To maintain information
on their customers, students, and insurance policyholders, banks, colleges, and
insurance companies utilize them. They may also act as a server in a network
environment. Hundreds of users may be managed simultaneously by them.
Mainframe Computer Features:
 They have enormous amounts of memory.
 They are capable of running several different operating systems.
 They have a significant number of CPUs with powerful processing speeds.
 Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology is employed.
Examples:
 IBM Z Series
 Unisys ClearPath
3. Minicomputers

Figure 1.14 Mini Computer

Minicomputers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the
term "Midrange Computers." These minicomputers frequently have several users,
just as mainframe computers. They are a bit slower than mainframe computers.
For example, the manufacturing department may employ minicomputers to
keep an eye on specific production processes.
1.18 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Features of Minicomputers:
 It is smaller than mainframes or supercomputers in terms of size.
 In comparison to a mainframe or supercomputer, it is less costly.
 It is able to perform many jobs at once.
 It may be utilized by several users simultaneously.
 It is utilized by small businesses.
Examples:
 DEC PDP-11
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
 VAX Systems
4. Microcomputers

Figure 1.15 Micro Computer

A microcomputer, sometimes referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a
type of computer that runs on a smaller scale than traditional computers (Personal
Computer). A component that is commonly referred to as a motherboard houses
the central processing unit (CPU), a microprocessor, memory in the form of ROM
(Read Only Memory), RAM (Random Access Memory), I/O ports, and a bus system
of connecting wires. They are the most affordable.
COMPUTERS 1.19

Features of Microcomputers:
 They are extensively employed for personal usage.
 They are smaller and comparably less expensive.
 Multi-user functionality is not supported.
 It has a limited computational capacity.
 They are quite simple to use.
Examples:
 Desktop PCs
 Laptops
 Smartphones
 Tablets
 Raspberry Pi
b) Computers according to their Capacity to manage data:
1. Analogous Computers

Figure 1.16 Analogous Computers

1.20 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Analog computers process analog data. Temperature, pressure, weight, depth,

and voltage are a few examples of this type of data. These have an infinite range of
values and are continuous quantities.
The first computers were analog, and they laid the groundwork for today's
digital computers.
Examples:
 Analog thermometers
 Speedometers
 Flight simulators
2. Digital Computers

Figure 1.17 Digital Computer

In digital computers, letters, numbers, and other special symbols are
represented by digits. On-off (ON-OFF) inputs are used by digital computers, and
ON-OFF signals are also generated by them.
An ON is often represented by a 1 and an OFF by a 0, respectively. A digital
computer is capable of processing both numerical and non-numerical data. In
addition to doing fundamental arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, it can also perform logical operations.
COMPUTERS 1.21

Examples:
 Personal computers
 Laptops
 Smartphones
 Servers
3. Hybrid Computers
Computers that combine digital and analog components are called hybrid
computers. It combines the best features of both types, having the speed of an analog
computer with the memory and precision of a digital computer. Hybrid computers
are typically used in specific applications where both forms of data need to be
processed. As an example, a gas pump contains a processor that converts
measurements of fuel flow into information about quality and cost.
Examples:
Hospital patient monitoring systems
Control systems in factories

Figure 1.18 Hybrid Computer

1.22 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

c) Classification according to purpose

Computers can be classified according to the tasks they perform as general or
special purpose computers.
1. General purpose computers
They are the most common types of computers in use today. Their flexibility
enables them to be applied in a wide range of applications like;
 Document processing
 Performing calculations,
 Accounting,
 Data and information management
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers,
Microcomputers & Laptops used in most offices & schools.
2. Special-purpose computers
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular
specific task only. Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one
they were meant to do. Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose
computer are fixed (hard-wired) at the time of manufacture.
For example:
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control
the communication of information between the various workstations and the host
computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform
it quickly & very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in Digital watches.
 Computers used in Petrol pumps.
COMPUTERS 1.23

1.5 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

 Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses,
educational institutions, research organizations, the medical field,
government offices, entertainment, etc.
 Today cannot imagine growing our technology without computers.

Figure 1.19 Applications of Computers

1. Education
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer Aided Learning (CAL) - Computer aided learning is the
process of using information technology to help teaching and enhance the
learning process.
 Distance Learning - Distance learning is a new learning methodology.
Computer plays the key role in this kind of learning. Many institutes are
providing distance learning programs.
 Online Examination - The trend of online examination is becoming
popular. Different examination like GRE, GMAT and SAT are conducted
online all over the world. The questions are marked by computer. It
minimizes the chance of mistakes. It also enables to announce the result
in time.
1.24 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Figure 1.20 Applications of Computers in Education

2. Business
 Communication - Communication is key when gaining and maintaining
clients and other important contacts. Computers give businesses access to
email, instant messaging and custom customer contact systems.
 Marketing - Computers allow businesses to create websites, stunning
ads and complete marketing campaigns.
 Marketing videos can be edited and custom ads created in- house with the
use of specialized software.
 Accounting - Accounting without computers presents a high risk for
human error. Accounting software allows businesses to simply input their
financial data and instantly see gains and losses. All necessary tax reports
are available the moment the data is entered. Using computers for
invoicing, managing expenses and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring
financial data is as accurate as possible.
 Storage - Instead of filing cabinets, businesses are able to store millions
of files using computers and servers. Data can be stored centrally for easy
access from multiple computers or stored locally for individual use.
Computerized storage saves space and provides a far more efficient
organization strategy. With encryption, passwords and replace keys, data
remains secure.
COMPUTERS 1.25

 Documents and Reports - Most businesses have some sort of productivity

software which typically includes a word processor and spreadsheet
application. These two programs allow businesses to create reports, memos,
tutorials and even colorful ads for company events.
 Spreadsheet applications give businesses the chance to organize, manage
and calculate both numeric and alphabetic data. With charts and graphs,
reporting becomes visual instead of text-based.

Figure 1.21 Applications of Computers in Business

3. Scientific
 Complex computations
 Data analysis
 Modeling
 Complex Calculations
 Storage and data transfer
 Mapping
 Collaboratory
1.26 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Figure 1.22 Applications of Computers in Scientific

4. Medical

Figure 1.23 Applications of Computers in Medical

 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause
of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared
by computer.
COMPUTERS 1.27

 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs

for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry
dates, harmful drug's side effects etc.
 Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
 Patient History - Hospital management systems can store data about
patients. Computers are used to store data about patients, their diseases
& symptoms, the medicines that are prescribed.
5. Agriculture

Figure 1.24 Applications of Computers in Agriculture

 Farmland Assessment - Geographic Information Systems (GIS). These
hi-tech, interactive systems provide information based on a variety of
factors such as soil conditions, drainage and slope conditions, soil pH and
nutrient status,etc.
 Autonomous Farm Equipment and Tractors - Guidance technology is
already being widely used in self-propelled equipment to aid crop seeding
and fertilizer application. Automated feeding systems, computerized milk
collection and milking machines have been around since the late 20th
century, resulting in better economic yield for the dairy industry as well
as livestock production. Automated tractors are probably not far away.
1.28 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

 Farm Software - With regard to livestock farming, ready-made computer

applications are available to track animals, storing and evaluating
information such as age, health records, milk production, offspring
productivity, and reproductive cycle status. This is often called herd
recording.
 Internet Forums, Social Networking and Online Knowledge Bases-
Imagine using the power of the Internet to connect with farmers,
agriculturists and agricultural scientists and other experts spread across
the globe.
 E-agriculture - An emerging field of agricultural practices, e-agriculture
focuses on coming up with innovative ways and best practices to use the
existing information and communication technologies (ICTs) for sustainable
agricultural development and food safety standards, particularly in rural
areas.
6. Engineering

Figure 1.25 Applications of Computers in Engineering

 One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation
and modification of images. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design
of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
COMPUTERS 1.29

 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation

and improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns,
designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both
2D and 3D drawings.
7. Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where
a computer has been used are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Figure 1.26 Applications of Computers in Military

1.30 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

8. Banking
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
 Customer Information - Banks use computers to track customer
information such as name, address, phone number, date of birth, Social
Security number and place of employment. This information is used to
stay in touch with customers and notify them of any changes in bank policy
 Products - The number of products and services a customer has is also
stored in computers.
 Transactions and Goals - Computers help tellers keep a record of all
transactions for the day. When customers make deposits and withdrawals,
cash checks, open checking accounts or apply for mortgage loans, a
computer will store and track all of the information once a teller or bank
employee keys it into the system.

Figure 1.27 Applications of Computers in Banking

9. Entertainment
 Music - Computers now have almost unlimited access to any song by any
artist. Many website services allow users to purchase individual tracks or
albums directly to their computer.
COMPUTERS 1.31

 Television and Movies - With the advancement of video card and Internet
speeds, movies and streaming television are now at the click of a mouse
button. Many website services offer free-to-stream movies with the cost of
a monthly subscription fee.
 Art - computer photo editing programs and animation programs are also
the sources behind most movies and professional photographs.
 Games - Computer games are a quickly growing market just like all other
forms of video games. However, computer games offer a very wide array of
possibilities. Computers have access to many peripheral devices such as
keyboards, mouses, joysticks, controllers and more.

Figure 1.28 Applications of Computers in Entertainment

1.6 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER

A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective
of their size and make.
1. Input
2. Storage
3. Processing
4. Output
5. Controlling
1.32 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Figure 1.29 Basic Organization of a Computer

a) Input Unit:
 Data and instructions are entered into the memory of a computer through
input devices.
 It captures information and translates it into a form that can be processed
by CPU.
 Computer accepts input in two ways
1. Manually
2. Directly
 Manually: The user enters data into the computer by hand. E.g. Keyboard,
mouse etc
 Directly: Information is fed into the computer automatically from a source
document(like barcode.).
b) Storage Unit
 The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as
storage.
 Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is
because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast
that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed.
 Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and
processing.
COMPUTERS 1.33

 The storage unit performs the following major functions:

 Data and instructions required for processing (received from input
devices)
 Intermediate results of processing
 Final results of processing, before they are released to an output device
Types of Storage:
1. Primary storage
 Also known as main memory.
 Used to hold running program instructions
 Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing processing
of job(s)
 Fast in operation
 Small Capacity
 Expensive
 Volatile (loses data on power dissipation)
 Primary memory can be further classified into
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read only Memory)
2. Secondary storage
 Also known as auxiliary memory or external memory.
 Used to hold stored program instructions
 Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
 Slower than primary storage
 Large Capacity
 Lot cheaper that primary storage
 Non volatile (Retains data even without power)
1.34 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

c) Arithmetic and logic unit (Processing):

 The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations
is called processing.
 ALU Comprises of two units
1. Arithmetic unit
2. Logic unit
 Arithmetic Unit: Contains circuitry that is responsible for performing
the actual computing and carrying out the arithmetic calculations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It can perform these
operations at a very high speed.
 Logic Unit: Perform logical operation based on the instruction. The
operations are logical comparisons between data items. This unit can
compare numbers, letters or special characters. Logic unit can test for 3
conditions: equal-to condition, Less-than condition and Greater-than
condition.
 Registers: To speed up processing, the ALU uses registers (temporary
storage locations) to hold instructions and data. This is the storing step of
the machine cycle. Storing means writing or recording the result to memory.
The time required to execute and store an instruction is called execution
time, or E-time.
 Various kinds of registers are used, each serving a specific purpose. Once
processing begins, an instruction register holds instructions currently being
executed. A data register holds the data items being acted upon. A storage
register hold the immediate and final results of processing.
d) Control unit (Controlling):
 This unit checks the correctness of sequences of operations.
 It fetches program instruction from primary storage unit known as fetching,
interpret them and ensure correct execution of the program known as
decoding.
 The time required to fetch and decode an instruction is called instruction
time, or I-time.
 It also controls the input/output devices and directs the overall functioning.
COMPUTERS 1.35

e) Central Processing Unit:

Figure 1.30 Central Processing Unit

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions
given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
 The CPU consists of a control unit, an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), and
registers.
 CPU, the brain of any computer system.
 It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of
calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by
activating and controlling the operations.
f) Output Unit:

Figure 1.31 Components of Computer

1.36 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

 This is the process of producing results from the input data.

 The outputs which can be easily understood and used by human beings are
in the form of
1. Hard copy
2. Soft copy
 Hard copy: Physical form of output is referred to as hard copy.
 Soft copy: Electronic version of the output is referred as soft copy.
 Some of the output devices are printer, monitor, plotters etc.

1.7 DATA REPRESENTATION

 Data representation refers to the method of storing and processing different
types of data (numbers, characters, images, sounds) in a computer system.
Since computers only understand binary digits (0 and 1), all types of
information must be converted into binary form.
a) Number System Representation
A number system is a way of expressing numbers using a specific set of digits
and rules. Computers rely on number systems to store, process, and represent
information efficiently. Since a computer only understands electrical signals (ON
and OFF states), binary representation becomes fundamental, but other number
systems octal, decimal, and hexadecimal are also widely used for different purposes.

Figure 1.32 Representation of Number Systems

COMPUTERS 1.37

1) Binary Number System (Base 2):

 Uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
 Each binary digit is called a bit. A group of 8 bits forms a byte, the basic
unit of storage.
 Each position in a binary number represents a power of 2.
Example: Binary 1011 = (1 × 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (1 × 2¹) + (1 × 2?)
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11 (decimal)
Application: All digital circuits and computer memory systems internally
use binary.
2) Octal Number System (Base 8)
 Uses digits from 0 to 7.
 Compact representation of binary, since 1 octal digit = 3 binary digits.
Example: Binary 110101 = group into 110 and 101
 110 = 6,101 = 5  65 (octal)
Application: Used in older computing systems and for simplifying binary
representations.
3) Decimal Number System (Base 10)
 Uses digits from 0 to 9.
 Most natural system for humans.
 Each position has a weight that is a power of 10.
Example: Decimal452 = (4×10²)+(5×10¹)+(2×10?)
= 400 + 50 + 2 = 452
Appl i c a tion : Used i n user i nterfaces, inp ut /output, and everyday
computations.
4) Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16)
 Uses 16 symbols: 0-9 and A-F (A=10, B=11, …, F=15).
 1 hex digit = 4 binary digits, making it very compact.
1.38 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Example: Binary 11010111 = group into 1101 and 0111  1101 = D, 0111 =
7  D7 (hexadecimal)
Application: Used extensively in programming, memory addressing, and
error codes.
b) Character Representation
In addition to numbers, computers must also handle textual information such
as alphabets, digits, punctuation marks, and special symbols. To achieve this,
characters are assigned unique numerical codes that can be stored in binary format.
This process is known as character representation.
The two most widely used schemes are ASCII and Unicode.
1) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 ASCII is one of the earliest character encoding standards, developed in the
1960s.
 It uses 7 bits to represent 128 characters, including:
 English alphabets (A-Z, a-z)
 Digits (0-9)
 Punctuation marks and symbols (!, @, #, $, etc.)
 Control characters (e.g., carriage return, line feed)
 An extended version of ASCII uses 8 bits, allowing 256 character codes.
Example:
 The uppercase letter 'A' has ASCII code 65 (binary: 01000001).
 The lowercase letter 'a' has ASCII code 97 (binary: 01100001).
Apart from ASCII and Unicode, another important character encoding scheme
is EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code).
Example:
 The charact er 'A' in EBCDIC i s represented as 1100 0001 (C1 in
Hexadecimal).
 The character '0' is represented as 1111 0000 (F0 in Hexadecimal).
COMPUTERS 1.39

Limitations:
 ASCII is limited to English and a small set of characters.
 It cannot represent letters and symbols from non-English languages (e.g.,
Hindi, Chinese, Arabic).
2) Unicode
 Unicode was developed as a universal character encoding standard to
overcome the limitations of ASCII.
 It can use 16 bits, 24 bits, or even 32 bits, depending on the encoding scheme,
allowing representation of over 1 million characters.
 Supports multiple world languages, mathematical symbols, emojis, and
special notations.
Example:
Uppercase Letters:
'A'  U+0041
'B'  U+0042
'C'  U+0043
…
'Z'  U+005A
Lowercase Letters:
'a'  U+0061
'b'  U+0062
'c'  U+0063
…
'z'  U+007A
Advantages
 Provides a single standard for multilingual computing.
 Facilitates global communication and interoperability.
 Extensively used in modern operating systems, programming languages,
and web technologies.
1.40 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

c) Image, Audio, and Video Representation

Computers store multimedia data in digital form using binary representation.
1. Image Representation
 Images are stored as pixels (picture elements).
 Each pixel holds color information (RGB model or grayscale).
 Quality depends on resolution and color depth.
 Formats: JPEG, PNG, BMP.
2. Audio Representation
 Audio is stored as digital samples of analog sound waves.
 Defined by sampling rate (e.g., 44.1 kHz) and bit depth (e.g., 16-bit).
 Formats: WAV (uncompressed), MP3 (compressed).
3. Video Representation
 A video is a sequence of image frames with synchronized audio.
 Controlled by frame rate (fps), resolution, and bitrate.
 Formats: MP4, MPEG, AVI.
d) Boolean Data
Boolean data represents logical values and is fundamental in computer science
for decision-making and control.
 Representation:
 Boolean values are stored using binary digits:
 TRUE  represented as 1
 FALSE  represented as 0
 Usage in Computing:
 Widely used in conditional statements, logical expressions, and control
structures.
 Essential for decision-making operations, such as IF-ELSE conditions
in programming.
 Supports logical operations like AND, OR, and NOT.
COMPUTERS 1.41

 Applications:
 Used in digital circuits (switches ON/OFF).
 Applied in database queries (conditions that return TRUE/FALSE).
 Important in search algorithms, filters, and comparisons.
Example of Boolean Data
Truth Table Example - AND Operation

1.8 USING SPREADSHEETS FOR BASIC OPERATIONS ON DATA AND VISUALIZATION

Spreadsheets (like Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, or LibreOffice Calc) are
widely used tools for storing, organizing, analyzing, and visualizing data. They
consist of rows and columns, where the intersection is called a cell, and each cell
can store numbers, text, or formulas.
They are especially useful for basic operations on data and for creating charts
and graphs to visualize results.
a) Basic Operations on Data in Spreadsheets
1. Data Entry and Formatting
 Users can enter raw data such as numbers, names, or dates into cells.
 Data can be formatted (bold, italics, currency, percentage, colors) for better
readability.
 Sorting and filtering allow easy organization.
1.42 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

2. Basic Arithmetic Operations

Spreadsheets allow mathematical calculations using operators or formulas.
 Addition: =A1 + B1
 Subtraction: =A1 - B1
 Multiplication: =A1 * B1
 Division: =A1 / B1
 Average: =AVERAGE(A1:A10)
 Sum: =SUM(A1:A10)
3. Functions and Formulas
 Statistical functions: SUM, AVERAGE, MIN, MAX, COUNT
 Logical functions: IF, AND, OR, NOT
 Text functions: CONCATENATE, LEFT, RIGHT, LEN
 Lookup functions: VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP, INDEX, MATCH
4. Data Cleaning
 Remove duplicates.
 Use TRIM, CLEAN, PROPER to fix formatting issues.
 Apply conditional formatting to highlight errors or specific values.
b) Data Visualization in Spreadsheets
Visualization helps users understand patterns, trends, and comparisons in
data.
1. Types of Charts and Graphs
 Column Chart / Bar Chart: Compare values across categories.
 Pie Chart: Show proportions or percentages.
 Line Chart: Show trends over time (e.g., monthly sales).
 Scatter Plot: Show relationships between two variables.
 Histogram: Show frequency distribution of data.
COMPUTERS 1.43

2. Steps to Create a Chart

 Enter data in rows/columns.
 Select the data range.
 Choose Insert  Chart/Graph.
 Select the desired chart type.
 Customize chart titles, axis labels, and colors.
3. Conditional Formatting
 Highlights cells automatically based on conditions.
 Example: Highlight sales above Rs 10,000 in green, below Rs 5,000 in red.
4. Pivot Tables
 Summarize large datasets quickly.
 Allows grouping, filtering, and calculation (sum, count, average).
 Example: Generate sales totals by region and product category.
c) Advantages of Using Spreadsheets
 Easy to use and accessible.
 Supports automation using formulas and macros.
 Provides both data analysis and visualization tools.
 Reduces manual errors with built-in validation and formulas.
 Useful in multiple fields: business, finance, engineering, education, and
research.
Spreadsheets are powerful tools that allow users to perform basic operations
on data such as arithmetic calculations, sorting, filtering, and applying formulas.
Beyond handling raw data, spreadsheets offer visualization features like charts,
graphs, conditional formatting, and pivot tables that make it easier to analyze and
present data effectively.
1.44 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

d) Example: Sales Data Visualization

Step 1: Enter Data in Spreadsheet
Month Sales (Rs)
January 25,000
February 30,000
March 28,000
April 35,000
May 40,000
June 38,000
Step 2: Create a Chart
 Select the data range (Month and Sales).
 Insert  Line Chart (or Column Chart).
COMPUTERS 1.45

Step 3: Result
You will get a chart showing the sales trend over 6 months.
Interpretation:
 Sales increased steadily from January (Rs 25,000) to May (Rs 40,000).
 A slight dip is observed in June (Rs 38,000).
 Overall, the business shows positive growth in the first half of the year.
1.46 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Part - A
1. Define a computer.
A computer is an electronic machine used for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical
terms. In simple words, it's an electronic device that performs diverse
operations using instructions to process information to achieve desired
results.
2. Name any two characteristics of computers that make them desirable
tools in human development.
Two characteristics of computers are:
 Speed
Computers process data at an extremely fast rate, performing millions of
instructions per second, completing complex tasks that would take humans
days or years in seconds.
 Accuracy
Computers are highly accurate, with the level of accuracy depending on the
instructions and type of machine used. Faulty instructions, however, lead
to faulty results (Garbage In Garbage Out - GIGO).
3. Who invented the first digital computer and in what year? What was
its primary limitation?
The first digital computer was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal. Its primary
limitation was that it could only add.
4. What was the core technology of the First Generation of computers,
and list two of its main drawbacks?
The core technology for the First Generation of computers (1940-1956) was
vacuum tubes. Two main drawbacks were that they were very costly and huge
in size, generating a lot of heat and requiring AC.
5. How did the introduction of transistors in the Second Generation
improve computers compared to the First Generation?
Transistors, used in the Second Generation (1956-1963), made computers
cheaper, consumed less power, were more compact in size, more reliable, and
faster than the first-generation machines that used vacuum tubes.
COMPUTERS 1.47
6. Differentiate between a Supercomputer and a Mainframe computer
based on their primary applications.
 Supercomputers are the most efficient and are primarily used for research
and exploratory purposes like space exploration, seismic research, and
nuclear weapons testing.
 Mainframe computers are used by large corporations and governmental
organizations to run everyday operations, store and analyze vast amounts
of data, and can act as servers managing hundreds of users simultaneously.
7. Briefly explain the difference between a Digital computer and a
Hybrid computer.
 Digital computers represent data using digits (0s and 1s) for letters,
numbers, and symbols, processing both numerical and non-numerical data
through ON-OFF signals.
 Hybrid computers combine both digital and analog components, offering
the speed of an analog computer with the memory and precision of a digital
computer, typically used in specific applications where both data forms need
processing.
8. Provide two examples of how computers are applied in the medical
field.
Computers are applied in the medical field for:
 Diagnostic Systems: Used to collect data and identify the cause of
illnesses.
 Patient Monitoring Systems: Used to check patient's vital signs for
abnormalities, such as in Cardiac Arrest or ECG.
9. List the five major operations or functions that a computer performs.
A computer basically performs five major operations or functions:
1. Input
2. Storage
3. Processing
4. Output
5. Controlling
1.48 ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

10. What is the main purpose of character representation in computers,

and name two widely used encoding schemes?
The main purpose of character representation is to assign unique numerical
codes to textual information (alphabets, digits, punctuation marks, and special
symbols) so that computers can store them in a binary format. Two widely
used encoding schemes are ASCII and Unicode.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Part - B
1. Define a computer and explain its key characteristics.
2. Discuss the five generations of computers.
3. Classify computers based on their size.
4. Explain the classification of computers based on data handling and purpose.
5. Elaborate on the various applications of computers in different fields.
6. Describe the basic functional organization of a computer system.
7. Explain data representation in computers with a focus on number systems.
8. Discuss character representation and the use of spreadsheets for data
operations.