3
Reproduction
3.1 Asexual reproduction
3.2 Sexual reproduction
3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual
08/31/2025
reproduction
Learning
Outcomes:
3.1.1 Describe asexual reproduction
3.1.2 Identify examples of asexual reproduction
3.1.3 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual
reproduction:
(a) to a population of a species in the wild
(b) to crop production
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Learning
Outcomes:
3.3.1 Identify in diagrams and images and draw the parts of an insect-
pollinated flower
3.3.2 State the functions of the structures listed in 16.3.1
3.3.3 Identify in diagrams and images and describe the anthers and
stigmas of a wind-pollinated flower
3.3.4 Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Learning
Outcomes:
3.3.5 Describe pollination
3.3.6 State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
nucleus in an ovule
3.3.7 Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
8 Investigate and describe the environmental conditions that affect
germination of seeds.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Learning
Outcomes:
3.2.1 Describe sexual reproduction
3.2.2 Describe fertilisation
3.2.3 What are gametes?
3.2.4 Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
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ion
What is asexual
reproduction?
What is happening in each plant? How is each one reproducing?
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
What is asexual
reproduction?
Asexual reproduction does not
involve sex cells or fertilisation
Runners
Only one parent is
required so there is no fusion of
gametes and no mixing of
genetic information
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
What is asexual
reproduction?
As a result, the offspring
are genetically identical to
the parent and to each
other (clones)
Asexual reproduction is defined
as a process resulting in
genetically identical offspring
from one parent
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Examples of Asexual
Reproduction
Bacteria are produced by binary
fission.
Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type
of asexual reproduction called binary fission
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Examples of Asexual
Reproduction
Plants can reproduce asexually
using:
• bulbs
• tubers
these are food storage organs
from which budding can occur,
producing new plants which are
genetically identical to the parent
plant:
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Examples of Asexual
Reproduction
Some plants grow side shoots
called runners that contain
tiny plantlets on them.
These will grow roots and
develop into separate plants,
again being genetically
identical to the parent plant:
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Advantages of Asexual
Reproduction:
Wild Species:
• Rapid population growth allows for
quick exploitation of suitable
environments.
• More time and energy-efficient
reproduction compared to sexual
reproduction.
• Reproduction occurs much faster than
in sexual species.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Disadvantages of Asexual
Reproduction:
Wild Species:
• Limited genetic variation leads to genetically
identical offspring.
• Vulnerable to habitat changes (e.g., temperature
shifts, droughts, new predators).
• Disease can affect the entire population due to
lack of diversity.
• Slow evolution because of no genetic
recombination.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Advantages of Asexual
Reproduction:
Crop Plants:
• Can be produced with desired characteristics
(e.g., high yield, disease resistance).
• Uniform characteristics are necessary for
commercial sale.
• Faster production compared to traditional
methods.
• Lower production costs compared to investing in
seeds.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Disadvantages of Asexual
Reproduction:
Crop Plants:
• Asexually produced crops may not adapt to climate
changes.
• Requires human input and management for
asexual reproduction.
• If a diseased parent plant is used, offspring will also
be diseased.
• Vulnerability to disease or pests can lead to
significant financial losses.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
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08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Sexual
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires the fusion
of two nuclei
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Sexual
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires the fusion
of two nuclei
Offspring are genetically different
Takes place in
•Animals
•Plants
•Fungi
•But in bacteria
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ion
Fertilisation
is defined as the fusion of gamete
nuclei, and as each gamete comes
from a different parent, there is
variation in the offspring.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Gamet
es
• A gamete is a sex cell (in
animals: sperm and ovum; in egg nucleus
plants pollen nucleus and ovum) (23
chromosomes)
• Gametes differ from normal cells
as they contain half the number
of chromosomes found in other
body cells - we say they have
a haploid nucleus sperm nucleus
(23
chromosomes)
• This is because they only
contain one copy of each
chromosome, rather than the
two copies found in other body
cells
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Gamet
es
• When the male and female
gametes fuse, they become
a zygote (fertilised egg cell)
• This contains the full 46
chromosomes, half of which
came from the father and half
from the mother - we say the
zygote has a diploid nucleus
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ion
Haploid & Diploid
Cells
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual
Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
• increases genetic variation • Takes time and energy to find
mates
• The species can adapt to new
environments due to variation, • Difficult for isolated members
giving them a survival of the species to reproduce
advantage
• Disease is less likely to affect
the population (due to
variation)
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ion
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
3
Reproduction
3.2 Sexu
al reproduction in flowering plants
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.2 sexual reproduction in flowering
plants
Learning
Outcomes:
3.3.1 Identify in diagrams and images and draw the parts of an insect-
pollinated flower
3.3.2 State the functions of the structures listed in 3.3.1
3.3.3 Identify in diagrams and images and describe the anthers and
stigmas of a wind-pollinated flower
3.3.4 Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
3.3.7 Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
08/31/2025
plants
Pollinatio
n
Pollination occurs in several ways
including pollen
Wind-pollination
Insect-pollination
This is a flower from a plant which is
adapted for insect-pollination
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
The structure of a simple
flower
carpel
stigma
petals anthers
style
stamen
filaments
sepals ovary
ste
ovule
m
s
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
The structure of a simple
flower
Structure Description
A. Sepal 1. Protects unopened flower
2. Brightly coloured in insect-pollinated flowers to
B. Petals
attract insects
C. Anther 3. Produces and releases pollen
D. Filaments 4. Provides support to the anther
5. Sticky top of the female part of the flower which
E. Stigma
collects pollen grains
F. Style 6. A tube that connects the stigma and ovary
G. Ovary 7. Contains the ovules
8. Structures inside the ovary that contain the female
H. Ovule
gametes
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Adaptations for insect-
pollination
Specialised features:
Large, brightly coloured petals
A nectary and a scent
Large quantities of sticky pollen
Enclosed and stiff anthers
Enclosed and sticky stigma
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
08/31/2025
plants
Pollinatio
n
Pollination occurs in several ways
including
Wind-pollination
Insect-pollination
This is a flower from a plant which
is adapted for Wind-pollination
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
08/31/2025
plants
The structure of a simple
flower
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pollinatio
n
Specialised features:
Large quantities of small, light pollen
Large, feathery stigma
Long filaments and exposed anthers
Fewer, smaller, dull-coloured petals
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
08/31/2025
plants
Learning
Outcomes:
3.3.5 Describe pollination
3.3.6 State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
nucleus in an ovule
3.3.8 Investigate and describe the environmental conditions that
affect germination of seeds.
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.1 Asexual and sexual reproduct
ion
Pollinatio
n
Pollen is transferred from the anthers
pollen
to the stigma
Cross-pollination: Pollen transfers to
the stigma of a different plant
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pollinatio
n
Pollen is transferred from the anthers to the
stigma
Self-pollination: Pollen transfers to the stigma
of the same plant
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Self- & Cross-
Pollination
Self-pollination:
• reduces genetic variety of the offspring
•Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental
conditions change, as it is less likely that any offspring will have
adaptations that suit the new conditions well
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
08/31/2025
plants
Pollinatio
n
Pollen is transferred from the anthers
pollen
to the stigma
Cross-pollination: Pollen transfers to
the stigma of a different plant
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Self- & Cross-
Pollination
•Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen from one plant is
transferred to the stigma of another plant of the same species
•This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves
genetic variation
Cross-pollination:
• relies completely on the presence of pollinators
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Fertilisatio
n
The pollen nucleus fuses with a
haploid female nucleus in the ovule
The ovary can then develop into the
fruit
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Factors Affecting Germination of
Seeds
•Germination is the start of growth in the seed
•Three factors are required for successful germination:
• Water - allows the seed to swell up and the
enzymes in the embryo to start working so that
growth can occur
• Oxygen - so that energy can be released for
germination
• Warmth - germination improves as temperature
rises (up to a maximum) as the reactions which
take place are controlled by enzymes
•As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also
does not inhibit it, it makes no difference whether it is present
or not 3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Investigating
Germination
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Investigating
Germination
•Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on
cotton wool
•Set each test tube as shown in diagram below
•Leave tubes in set environment for a period of time: A, B
and C incubated at 20°C; D placed in a fridge at 4°C
•Compare results and see which tube has the greatest
number of germinated seeds
•As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also
does not inhibit it, it makes no difference whether it is present
or not 3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Factors Affecting Germination of
Seeds
Seeds
Test Tube Factor Being Tested Germinated
A Water / Moisture No
B Control (all factors present) Yes
C Oxygen No
D Warm 3Temperature No
Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pollen tube
formation
•After pollination, the following sequence of events take place:
• A pollen tube grows from the pollen grain down the style
until it reaches the ovary
• Nuclei from pollen travel down the tube
• The nuclei enter the ovule and fuse with the nucleus of the
female gamete (fertilisation)
• After fertilisation the ovules develop into seeds and the
ovary develops into a fruit
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pollen tube
formation
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pollen tube
formation
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plants
3
Reproduction
3.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
The male reproductive
system
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
The male reproductive
system
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
The female reproductive
system
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
The female reproductive
system
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
3 Reproduction | 3.4 Sexual reproduction
08/31/2025
in humans
Learning
Outcomes:
3.4.7 State that in early development,
3.4.8 Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following in
the development of the fetus: umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac
and amniotic fluid
3.4.9 Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord
3.9.10 State that some pathogens and toxins can cross the placenta,
harming the fetus.
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ion
“And indeed We have created mankind
from essence of soil. Then We made
essence of soil into liquid (which is stored)
in a sturdy place (womb). Then We made
the liquid into a lump of blood, then We
made the lump of blood into a lump of
Nicolas Hartsoeker’s flesh, and We made the lump of flesh into
illustration of a tiny a bone. Then We wrapped the bones with
proto-person inside a meat. Then We made it into another
sperm cell, 1694. creation.” (Al-Mu’minun: 12-14). Around
662
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ion
Gametes &
Fertilisation
What is fertilisation?
• Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
(sperm cell) and a female gamete (egg cell)
• It occurs in the oviducts
• Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of
fertilisation and successful development of an embryo
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Gametes &
Fertilisation
What is fertilisation?
• The sperm follow a
chemical trail that
starts in the cervix,
moves through the
uterus and up into the
oviduct where the
egg is located
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Gametes &
Fertilisation
What is fertilisation?
• Nucleus from sperm
Enters egg cell and
fuses with egg
nucleus
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Adaptations of
Gametes
Human gametes
The human gametes are
the egg and the sperm cells
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Adaptations of
Gametes
Adaptive
Gamete Feature Function
Allows the sperm to
Has a flagellum swim towards the
Sperm (tail) egg
Contains
enzymes in the Digests a route into
head region the egg for
(acrosome) fertilization
Provides energy for
Contains many movement of the
mitochondria flagellum
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Adaptations of
Gametes
Adaptive
Gamete Feature Function
Provides energy
Cytoplasm for cell division in
contains a the developing
store of zygote after
Egg energy fertilization
Forms an
Jelly-like impenetrable
coating that barrier to prevent
changes after more sperm from
fertilization entering the egg
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Comparison of Male & Female
Gametes
Comparative
Sperm Egg
Feature
Size Very small (45 µm) Large (0.15 mm)
Head region, flagellum, Round cell with few structural
Structure many structural adaptations, covered in a jelly
adaptations coating
Motility Capable of locomotion Not capable of locomotion
Produced every day in Thousands of immature eggs in
Numbers huge numbers (around each ovary; only one released
100 million per day) each month
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plants
Questio
n
•Flagellum propels the sperm / allows the sperm to swim to the oviduct /
site of fertilisation / egg cell
•Mitochondria are the site of respiration They supply energy /ATP
•Acrosome contains/releases enzymes
• Enzymes digest/breakdown/dissolve the jelly layer
• So sperm nucleus can enter the egg cell / so sperm and egg nuclei can
fuse
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plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
After fertilisation in
the oviduct, the zygote
travels towards
the uterus
This takes about 3 days,
during which time the
zygote will divide several
times to form a ball of cells
known as an embryo
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
In the uterus, the embryo
embeds itself in the thick
lining (implantation) and
continues to grow and
develop
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
The gestation period for humans is 9
months
Major development of organs takes place
within the first 12 weeks, during which
time the embryo gets nutrients from the
mother by diffusion through the uterus
lining
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
After this point the organs are all in place,
the placenta has formed and the embryo
is now called a fetus
The remaining gestation time is used by
the fetus to grow bigger in size
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
• The fetus is surrounded by
an amniotic sac which
contains amniotic fluid (made
from the mother’s blood plasma)
• This protects the fetus during
development by cushioning it
from bumps to the mother’s
abdomen
• The umbilical cord joins the
fetus’s blood supply to
the placenta for exchange of
nutrients and removal3 Reproduction
of waste| 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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products plants
Pregnancy: growth & development of the
fetus
Substances are exchanged across the placenta
From mother to foetus:
Oxygen
Nutrients
Antibodies
Water
Some pathogens and toxins
Drugs and alcohol
From foetus to mother:
Urea
Carbon dioxide
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Questio
n
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Human secondary sexual
characteristics
•Primary sexual characteristics are present during
development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc between males and females
•Secondary sexual characteristics are the changes that
occur during puberty as children become adolescents
•They are controlled by the release
of hormones - oestrogen in girls and testosterone in boys
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Human secondary sexual
characteristics
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
Human secondary sexual
characteristics
3 Reproduction | 3.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering
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plants
The Menstrual
Cycle
•The average
menstrual cycle is 28
days long
•Ovulation (the
release of an egg)
occurs
about halfway throug
h the cycle (day 14)
and the egg then
travels down the
oviduct to the uterus
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
The Menstrual
Cycle
•Failure to fertilise the
egg
causes menstruation
(commonly called a
period) to occur - this
is caused by
the breakdown of
the thickened lining
of the uterus
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
The Menstrual
Cycle
•Menstruation lasts
around 5 - 7
days and signals the
beginning of the next
cycle
•After menstruation
finishes, the lining of
the uterus starts to
thicken again in
preparation for
possible implantation
in the next cycle
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
•The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones
released from :
• the ovary
• the pituitary gland in the brain
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Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the
blood during the menstrual cycle
•FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary
• Stimulates egg maturation in the follicles of the ovary
• Stimulates follicles in the ovaries to secrete oestrogen
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the
blood during the menstrual cycle
•The pituitary gland is stimulated to release luteinising hormone
(LH) when oestrogen levels have reached their peak
•LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to
produce progesterone
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Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
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Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
The roles of oestrogen and progesterone
Oestrogen
•Stimulates the uterus to develop a lining (to replace the lining lost
during menstruation)
•Post-ovulation, inhibits FSH and LH production in the pituitary
gland
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
The roles of oestrogen and progesterone
Progesterone
• Maintains and thickens lining of the uterus
• Inhibits FSH and LH production
• If fertilisation doesn't occur, levels drop and menstruation
occurs.
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Hormones of the Menstrual
Cycle
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STIs &
HIV/AIDS
•Unprotected sexual intercourse can lead to the transfer of
pathogens via exchange of body fluids
•Infections passed on in this way are known as sexually transmitted
infections (STIs)
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STIs &
HIV/AIDS
•An example of an STI is HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), the
virus that usually leads to the development of acquired
immunodeficiency disease (AIDS)
•HIV can also be spread via sharing needles with an infected
person, blood transfusions with infected blood and from mother to
fetus through the placenta and mother to baby via breastfeeding
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Controlling the Spread of
STIs
•The spread of STIs such as HIV are best controlled by:
• Avoid sharing needles with an infected person,
• test blood before transfusions
• Raising awareness by education programmes
08/31/2025 3 Reproduction | 3.3 Sexual Reproduction in Human
