複雜性創傷後壓力症候群:修订间差异
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{{NoteTA |G1=ME|G2=Psychology}}
{{Translating|[[:en:complex post-traumatic stress disorder]]||time=2020-08-02T01:07:53+00:00}}
{{medical}}
C-PTSD也被稱為DESNOS或其他未指定的極端壓力障礙。<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luxenberg |first1=Toni |last2=Spinazzola |first2=Joseph |last3=Van der Kolk |first3=Bessel |name-list-format=vanc |date=November 2001 |title=Complex trauma and disorders of extreme stress (DESNOS) diagnosis, part one: Assessment |journal=Directions in Psychiatry |volume=21 |pages=22 |url=https://complextrauma.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/CPTSD-1-Joseph-Spinazzola.pdf |access-date=2020-08-02 |archive-date=2020-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111170850/https://complextrauma.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/CPTSD-1-Joseph-Spinazzola.pdf |dead-url=no }}</ref>
一些研究人員認為,C-PTSD與[[創傷後壓力症候群|PTSD]]、{{link-en|身體化症|somatization disorder}}、[[解離性身份疾患]]和[[邊緣性人格障礙]]不同但相似。<ref name="TAR">{{cite book| first = Judith L. | last = Herman | name-list-format = vanc |title=Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence--From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror|url=https://archive.org/details/traumarecovery00herm_0| url-access = registration |access-date=29 October 2012|date=30 May 1997|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-08730-3}}</ref> 其主要差異是個人核心[[自我概念|自我認同]]的扭曲和嚴重的{{link-en|情緒失調|emotional dysregulation}}。<ref name = "Brewin_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brewin CR, Cloitre M, Hyland P, Shevlin M, Maercker A, Bryant RA, Humayun A, Jones LM, Kagee A, Rousseau C, Somasundaram D, Suzuki Y, Wessely S, van Ommeren M, Reed GM | display-authors = 6 | title = A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 58 | pages = 1–15 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29029837 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001 | url = http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/11577/1/Hyland_Review_2017.pdf | access-date = 2020-08-02 | archive-date = 2020-03-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200305151304/http://mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/11577/1/Hyland_Review_2017.pdf | dead-url = no }}</ref> 美國精神病學家和學者{{link-en|朱迪思·赫爾曼(Judith Herman)|Judith Herman}}於1992年在她的《創傷與復
在世界衛生組織(WHO)[[國際疾病與相關健康問題統計分類]]的第11版([[ICD-11]])中收錄了該疾病。將C-PTSD標準納入[[精神疾病診斷與統計手冊]](DSM)之提案尚未通過[[美國精神病學協會]](APA)的私人批准委員會批准。複雜性創傷後壓力症候群也獲得[[美國退伍軍人事務部]](VA),{{link-en|澳大利亞衛生直轄區|Healthdirect Australia}}(HDA)和[[國民保健署|國家衛生局]](NHS)認可。
==症狀==
===兒童與青少年===
PTSD的診斷最初是為遭受單一
* ''依戀''-「存在關係{{link-en|界線|Personal boundaries}}的問題、缺乏信任、[[社會孤立]]、難以感知和回應他人的情緒狀態」
* ''生物學''-「感覺-運動發育障礙、[[感覺統合]]困難、{{link-en|身體化症|Somatization}}和醫療問題增加」
* ''情感或
* ''[[解離 (心理学)|解離]]''-「[[失憶]]、[[人格解體]]、分離獨立的[[意識]]與分離獨立的[[記憶]]、情緒、功能,以及基於情緒的事件記憶受損」
* ''行為控制''-「有[[衝動控制]]、[[侵略 (社會科學)|侵略性]]問題、病理性[[自慰]]等問題和[[睡眠疾患]]」
* ''認知''-「難以集中注意力;各種『[[執行功能]]』的問題,如:[[計畫]]、[[判斷]]、任務啟動力、使用物品、{{link-en|自我監控|self-monitoring}};難以[[資訊處理|處理新訊息]];難以集中精力和完成任務;{{link-en|物體恆定感|object constancy}}差;難以思考[[因果關係]];以及語言發展問題,例如接受訊息與表達的溝通能力間的差距」
* ''自我概念''-「[[自傳]]體敘事斷斷續續,[[身體形象]]混亂,[[自尊]]心低落,羞恥感過強以及自我的負面內在運作模式」
===成人===
患有C-PTSD的成年人有時是在兒童時代開始經歷長時間的人際創傷,而不是在成年時期開始,或者同樣也於成人期遭遇人際創傷。這些早期傷害打斷了對自我和他人強烈的自我意識的發展。由於諸如照顧者或年長的兄弟姐妹之類的依戀對象經常造成身體和情感上的[[痛苦]]或忽視,因此這些人可能會感到自己從根本上存在缺陷,無法依靠他人。<ref name="Herman1992" /><ref name="Zlotnick1996">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zlotnick C, Zakriski AL, Shea MT, Costello E, Begin A, Pearlstein T, Simpson E | title = The long-term sequelae of sexual abuse: support for a complex posttraumatic stress disorder | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-traumatic-stress_1996-04_9_2/page/195 | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–205 | date = April 1996 | pmid = 8731542 | pmc = | doi = 10.1007/BF02110655 }}</ref> 這可能成為成人生活中與他人交往的普遍方式,稱為[[依附理論|不安全依戀]]。在當前的[[DSM-5]](2013)中,這種症狀既沒有包括在[[解离性障碍|解離性障礙]]的診斷中,也沒有包括在PTSD中。患有複雜性創傷後壓力症候群的人也會表現出持久的人格障礙,同時有顯著的{{link-en|再次受害|Victimisation}}風險。<ref name="Ide2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ide N, Paez A | title = Complex PTSD: a review of current issues | journal = International Journal of Emergency Mental Health | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–9 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11232103 }}</ref>
建議以以下六類症狀作為診斷C-PTSD的依據:<ref name="Roth_1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roth S, Newman E, Pelcovitz D, van der Kolk B, Mandel FS | title = Complex PTSD in victims exposed to sexual and physical abuse: results from the DSM-IV Field Trial for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-traumatic-stress_1997-10_10_4/page/539 | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 539–55 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9391940 | doi = 10.1002/jts.2490100403 }}</ref><ref name="Pelcovitz1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pelcovitz D, van der Kolk B, Roth S, Mandel F, Kaplan S, Resick P | title = Development of a criteria set and a structured interview for disorders of extreme stress (SIDES) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-traumatic-stress_1997-01_10_1/page/3 | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–16 | date = January 1997 | pmid = 9018674 | doi = 10.1002/jts.2490100103 }}</ref>
* 情緒和衝動調節的改變;
* 注意力或意識的改變;
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==診斷==
{{main|創傷後壓力症候群}}
C-PTSD曾被考慮收錄進DSM-IV,但1994年發布DSM-IV時未將其包括在內。<ref name="TAR" /> 它也沒有收錄在[[DSM-5]]中。[[創傷後壓力症候群]]仍被列為一種疾病。<ref name=dsm5>{{cite web |last=American Psychiatric Association |title=American Psychiatric Association Board of Trustees Approves DSM-5 |url=http://dsmfacts.org/materials/american-psychiatric-association-board-of-trustees-approves-dsm-5/ |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |access-date=30 April 2013
===鑑別診斷===
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====創傷後壓力症候群====
{{main|創傷後壓力症候群}}
創傷後壓力症候群(PTSD)被收錄於[[DSM-III]](1980)中,這主要是由於[[越南戰爭]]中相對多數的美國前線退伍軍人當時正在尋求對戰鬥壓力的持久影響的療法。在1980年代,各種研究人員和臨床醫生提出,創傷後壓力症候群也可能準確地描述兒童[[性虐待]]和家庭[[虐待]]等創傷的
對PTSD的描寫無法描繪C-PTSD的某些核心特徵。包括囚禁感、心理上的破碎狀態、喪失安全感、信任感和自我價值感,以及重覆{{link-en|再次受害|revictimized}}的傾向。最明顯地區別C-PTSD與PTSD的最重要特徵是失去連貫的自我意識以及隨之而來的症狀。<ref name="TAR" />{{rp|199–122}}
C-PTSD的特徵還在於{{link-en|依戀障礙|attachment disorder}},尤其是強烈蔓延的[[依附理論|不安全感]]或[[依附理論|無組織依戀]]。<ref name="vanderKolkRoth2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Kolk BA, Roth S, Pelcovitz D, Sunday S, Spinazzola J | title = Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 389–99 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16281237 | pmc = | doi = 10.1002/jts.20047 | url = http://www.traumacenter.org/products/pdf_files/specialissuecomplextraumaoct2006jts3.pdf | access-date = 2020-08-21 | archive-date = 2018-06-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180619095332/http://www.traumacenter.org/products/pdf_files/specialissuecomplextraumaoct2006jts3.pdf | dead-url = no }}</ref> DSM-IV(1994)標準中的[[解离性障碍|解離性障礙]]和PTSD未包括[[依附理論|不安全依戀]]。因此,當一些患有C-PTSD的成人成為家長面對自己的孩子的[[依附理論|依戀需求]]時,儘管這些家長有強烈的意願和盡了最大的努力,他們可能仍難以特別敏感地做出回應,尤其是對他們的嬰幼兒的日常焦慮,例如:日常的[[分離焦慮症|分離焦慮]]。<ref name="Schechter2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Coates SW, Kaminer T, Coots T, Zeanah CH, Davies M, Schonfeld IS, Marshall RD, Liebowitz MR, Trabka KA, McCaw JE, Myers MM | display-authors = 6 | title = Distorted maternal mental representations and atypical behavior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers and their toddlers | journal = Journal of Trauma & Dissociation | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–47 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18985165 | pmc = 2577290 | doi = 10.1080/15299730802045666 }}, pp. 123-149</ref> 儘管絕大多數倖存者不會虐待他人<ref name="Kaufman1987">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kaufman J, Zigler E | title = Do abused children become abusive parents? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-orthopsychiatry_1987-04_57_2/page/186 | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 186–192 | date = April 1987 | pmid = 3296775 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03528.x }}</ref>,如果患有這種情況的父母及其子女沒有得到適當的治療,這種養育子女的困難可能會對子女的社交和情感發展產生不利影響。<ref name="Schechter2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Willheim E | title = Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–86 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19486844 | pmc = 2690512 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.001 }}</ref><ref name="Schechter2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Zygmunt A, Coates SW, Davies M, Trabka K, McCaw J, Kolodji A, Robinson J | display-authors = 6 | title = Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations on the MacArthur Story Stem Battery | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 187–205 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 18007959 | pmc = 2078523 | doi = 10.1080/14616730701453762 }}</ref>
因此提出C-PTSD和PTSD的診斷類別的區別。C-PTSD比PTSD更好地描述了長期重複創傷的廣泛負面影響。<ref name="NCPTSD"
C-PTSD也不同於由Gill Straker(1987)引入創傷文獻的連續創傷壓力症候群(英語:Continuous Traumatic Stress Disorder)。<ref>{{cite journal|last=Straker|first=Gillian| name-list-format = vanc |title=The Continuous Traumatic Stress Syndrome. The Single Therapeutic Interview|journal=Psychology in Society|year=1987|issue=8 |pages=46–79}}</ref> 它最初是南非臨床醫生用來描述暴露於常與[[內戰]]和[[政治鎮壓]]相關的頻繁、高度暴力的後果。該術語也適用暴露於[[幫派]][[暴力]]和[[犯罪]]流行的環境中的影響,以及持續暴露於[[警察]]、[[消防]]和緊急服務等高風險職業的生命威脅中的影響。
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====創傷性喪慟====
{{main|喪慟|悲傷輔導}}
創傷性喪慟<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Bonanno GA | title = Is Complicated Grief a Valid Construct? | doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00014.x | journal = Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–134 | year = 2006 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jacobs S, Mazure C, Prigerson H | title = Diagnostic criteria for traumatic grief | journal = Death Studies | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 185–99 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11010626 | pmc = | doi = 10.1080/074811800200531 }}</ref><ref name="Ambrose">{{cite web | url = http://www.restoringconnections.ca/assets/pdf/ambrose_traumatic_grief.pdf | title = Traumatic Grief: What We Need to Know as Trauma Responders | last = Ambrose | first = Jeannette | name-list-format = vanc | accessdate = 2020-08-31 | archive-date = 2017-07-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170728120222/http://www.restoringconnections.ca/assets/pdf/ambrose_traumatic_grief.pdf | dead-url = no }}</ref><ref name="Figley1997">{{cite book|first=Charles|last=Figley|name-list-format=vanc|title=Death And Trauma: The Traumatology Of Grieving|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwdm5tA59EC|access-date=28 October 2012|date=1 April 1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-56032-525-3|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729152703/https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwdm5tA59EC|dead-url=no}}</ref>或複雜性哀悼<ref name="Rando1993">{{cite book|first=Therese A.|last=Rando|name-list-format=vanc|title=Treatment of complicated mourning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wXBHAAAAMAAJ|access-date=28 October 2012|date=February 1993|publisher=Research Press|isbn=978-0-87822-329-9|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729153108/https://books.google.com/books?id=wXBHAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}</ref>為[[創傷]]和[[喪慟]]同時發生的狀況。<ref name="Rando1994">{{Cite book|last=Rando|first=Therese A.|name-list-format=vanc|title=Dying, death, and bereavement: theoretical perspectives and other ways of knowing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Q3XAAAAMAAJ|access-date=28 October 2012|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|isbn=978-0-86720-631-9|pages=253–271|contribution=Complications in Mourning Traumatic Death.|editor-last=Corless|editor-first=Inge B.|editor2-last=Germino|editor2-first=Barbara B.|editor3-last=Pittman|editor3-first=Mary|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150946/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Q3XAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}</ref> 創傷與喪親之間存在概念上的聯繫,因為失去親人本身就是創傷。<ref name="Green2000">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Green BL | doi = 10.1080/10811440008407845 | title = Traumatic Loss: Conceptual and Empirical Links Between Trauma and Bereavement | journal = Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss | volume = 5 | pages = 1–17| year = 2000 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> 如果創傷事件{{link-en|危及生命|lethality}},但沒有導致[[死亡]],倖存者更可能經歷[[創傷後壓力症候群|創傷後壓力症狀]]。若有人死亡,且倖存者與其關係親近,也可能同時形成[[喪慟]]的症狀。當親人突然死亡或因暴力而死亡,兩種症狀將同時出現。這可能發生在遭受社區暴力的兒童身上。<ref name="PynoosNader1988">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Pynoos RS, Nader K | doi = 10.1002/jts.2490010406 | title = Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: Research implications | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-traumatic-stress_1988-10_1_4/page/445 | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 445–473 | year = 1988 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref><ref name = "NCTSNFirstAid">{{cite web |url=http://nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/edu_materials/psychological_1st_aid.pdf |title=Psychological First Aid |publisher=National Child Traumatic Stress Network |work=Adapted from Pynoos RS, Nader K (1988) |access-date=2012-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033259/http://nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/edu_materials/psychological_1st_aid.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 |
於囚禁、失去控制和喪失權力的情況下遭受暴力,並同時在危及生命的情況下遭遇朋友或親人死亡時,C-PTSD將表現出創傷性喪慟。對於經歷長期[[家庭暴力]]或長期[[社區暴力]]並最終導致朋友和親人死亡的兒童和繼子女,這很可能再次發生。[[繼子女]]遭受暴力和死亡風險增加的現象稱為「[[灰姑娘效應]]」。
====與邊緣性人格障礙的差異和相似之處====
{{main|依附理論|邊緣性人格障礙}}
C-PTSD可能與創傷後壓力症候群和[[邊緣性人格障礙]](英語:borderline personality disorder,縮寫為BPD)有共同的症狀。<ref name="vanderKolkCourtois2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Kolk BA, Courtois CA | title = Editorial comments: Complex developmental trauma | journal = Journal of Traumatic Stress | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 385–8 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16281236 | pmc = | doi = 10.1002/jts.20046 | url = http://afosterdissertation.wikispaces.com/file/view/van+der+Kolk_Editorial+Comments_2005.pdf | access-date = 2020-08-31 | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035458/http://afosterdissertation.wikispaces.com/file/view/van+der+Kolk_Editorial+Comments_2005.pdf | dead-url =
閱讀{{link-en|貝索·馮·德·克洛博士|Bessel van der Kolk}}的觀點和了解邊緣性人格障礙
<blockquote>
無法控制的依附連結中斷或扭曲出現在創傷後壓力症候群形成之前。人們在面臨危險時尋求更多的[[依附理論|依戀]]。成人和兒童可能會與間歇性[[騷擾]]、[[毆打]]和威脅他們的人建立強烈的情感連結。這些依附連結的持續存在導致受害者混淆痛苦和愛。創傷可能在行為、情感、[[生理]]和{{link-en|神經內分泌|Neuroendocrinology}}層面上重複。在這些不同的層面上重複創傷
</blockquote>
然而,研究人員發現C-PTSD和BPD是完全不同的疾病,具有不同的特徵。值得注意的是,C-PTSD不是人格障礙。那些患有C-PTSD的人不懼怕被遺棄或關係不穩定。相反地,他們退出關係了。他們不因缺乏同理心而掙扎。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Golier JA, Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Mitropoulou V, New AS, Schmeidler J, Silverman JM, Siever LJ | s2cid = 29404130 | display-authors = 6 | title = The relationship of borderline personality disorder to posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic events | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2003-11_160_11/page/2018 | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 160 | issue = 11 | pages = 2018–24 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14594750 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.2018 }}</ref> 邊緣性人格障礙與C-PTSD之間存在大量明顯差異,儘管兩者之間存在一些相似之處--主要是依戀問題(儘管以完全不同的方式發揮作用),以及難以調節強烈的情感效果(通常會鮮明地感到痛苦),但這些疾病本質上是完全不同的--特別是考慮到C-PTSD始終是對創傷的反應,而不是人格障礙。
<blockquote>
儘管BPD案例報告了許多PTSD和CPTSD的症狀,但BPD診斷類別對其特有症狀的認定方面顯然截然不同。表5中顯示的RR比率高度顯示以下症狀屬於BPD而不是CPTSD診斷類別:(1)瘋狂努力以避免真實或想像中的被遺棄,(2)不穩定而且緊張的人際模式,特徵為在過度理想化,以及否定其價值兩極端之間變換,(3)自我形象或自我感受持續明顯不穩定,(4)衝動。有自殺或自殘的嚴重性。請注意,自殺和自傷行為也存在顯著差異,BPD診斷類別中約有50%的人報告有該症狀,但CPTSD和PTSD診斷類別中這一現象要少得多且數量相當(分別為14.3%和16.7%)。BPD診斷類別中的案例和CPTSD診斷類別中的案例唯一沒有差異的症狀是長期的空虛感,這表明在此樣本中,該症狀並非BPD或CPTSD所特有,且不能區分它們。
第79行:
</blockquote>
另外,被診斷出患有BPD的人中有25%沒有兒童期被忽視或虐待的病史,如果他們的親屬被診斷為BPD,則其患BPD的可能性是未患該病的人的六倍。一種結論是,BPD有遺傳傾向與創傷無關。對同卵雙胞胎進行縱向研究的研究人員發現「在西方社會中,決定邊緣性人格障礙特徵的個人差異的主要因素是遺傳」。<ref name ="Distel2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Distel MA, Trull TJ, Derom CA, Thiery EW, Grimmer MA, Martin NG, Willemsen G, Boomsma DI | display-authors = 6 | title = Heritability of borderline personality disorder features is similar across three countries | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 9 | pages = 1219–29 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 17988414 | pmc = | doi = 10.1017/S0033291707002024 | url = http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/handle/1871/17379/Distel_Psychological%20Medicine_38%289%29_2008_u.pdf | hdl = 1871/17379 | access-date = 2020-09-12 | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083847/http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/handle/1871/17379/Distel_Psychological%20Medicine_38(9)_2008_u.pdf | dead-url = no }}</ref> 一份2014年發表於《歐洲精神創傷學雜誌》的研究比較CPTSD、PTSD和邊緣性人格障礙的異同,並發現可辨別它們各自的個案,且主張當共病存在時對每種病症給出獨立的診斷。<ref name = "Cloitre_2014" /> 在沒有適當了解這兩種情況的情況下,某些人可能會混淆BPD與C-PTSD,因為患有BPD的人也多半同時患有PTSD或一定的創傷史。
赫爾曼在《創傷與復原》中表達了對C-PTSD時常被繼承性的誤認為[[依賴型人格障礙]]、[[受虐狂]]、[[自我挫敗人格障礙]]的憂慮,並將這種態度與歷史上對[[女性歇斯底里症]]的誤診做比較。然而,C-PTSD患者之所以如此,是由於創傷性連結--個人在生物化學方面與某個虐待他們的人的緊密連結的強烈影響,以及他們在遭受多年創傷後所習得用以生存、指引、應付他們所遭遇的虐待的反應之後成為自動反應,深埋入他們的人格--對異常情況的正常反應。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healing-arts.org/healing_trauma_therapy/traumabonding-traumaticbonds.htm#abuse_and_traumatic_bonds|title=Trauma Therapy Articles: Descilo: Understanding and Treating Traumatic Bonds|website=www.healing-arts.org|accessdate=2020-11-11|archive-date=2020-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111231132/http://www.healing-arts.org/healing_trauma_therapy/traumabonding-traumaticbonds.htm#abuse_and_traumatic_bonds|dead-url=no}}</ref>
==治療==
雖然標準的[[循证医学|實證療法]]可能有效地治療創傷後壓力症候群,但是治療複雜性PTSD通常涉及解決人際關係困難和一系列不同的症狀,這使得治療更具挑戰性。根據[[美國退伍軍人事務部]]的說法:
<blockquote>
目前的PTSD診斷通常不能完全反映長期、反復的創傷所造成的嚴重心理傷害。遭受長期創傷的人經常除了正式的PTSD症狀外還有報告其他症狀,例如:[[自我概念]]以及他們適應壓力事件方式的改變。<ref>{{cite web |title=Complex PTSD - PTSD: National Center for PTSD |url=https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/complex_ptsd.asp |website=www.ptsd.va.gov |publisher=US Department of Veteran Affairs |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034255/https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/complex_ptsd.asp |dead-url=no }} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
</blockquote>
===兒童===
由PTSD衍生的心理療法對幫助患有C-PTSD的兒童的實用性尚不確定。在診斷和治療領域,使用C-PTSD類別時需要注意。朱利安·福特(Julian Ford)和貝索·馮·德·克洛(Bessel van der Kolk)博士提出,C-PTSD對診斷和治療兒童可能不如特為兒童而設的發育創傷症候群(DTD)那樣有用<ref name= "Ford_2009" />{{rp|60}} 根據庫圖瓦(Courtois)和福特,要開出DTD診斷患者必須
<blockquote>
經歷過早期生命發展不良的人際交往創傷的歷史,例如:性虐待、肢體虐待、暴力、對個人而言重要、崩潰性的創傷性喪失或主要照顧者背叛與兒童的關係,這被認為是複雜性創傷後壓力症候群的病理基礎。診斷、治療計劃和結果永遠互相關聯。<ref name= "Ford_2009">{{cite book | first1 = Julian D. | last1 = Ford | first2 = Marylene | last2 = Cloitre | chapter = Chapter 3: Best Practices in Psychotherapy for Children and Adolescents |editor-last1=Courtois |editor-first1=Christine A. |editor-last2=Herman |editor-first2=Judith Lewis | name-list-format = vanc |title=Treating complex traumatic stress disorders : an evidence-based guide | url = https://archive.org/details/treatingcomplext0000unse_t4e3 |date=2009 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-60623-039-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/treatingcomplext0000unse_t4e3/page/60 60] |edition=1st}}</ref>
</blockquote>
由於兒童的C-PTSD或DTD通常是由照顧關係中的長期不當對待、忽視、虐待引起的,因此,第一個要指出的{{link-en|生理心理社會系統|biopsychosocial}}要素就是這種關係。這總是涉及某種兒童保護機構。這既擴大了可以給予兒童的支援範圍,也增加了情況的複雜性,因為可能需要執行該機構的法定法律義務。
該領域已經發展並探索了一些實用的、治療的和倫理的評估和介入原則:<ref name= "Ford_2009" />{{rp|67}}
* 首要任務是識別和解決對兒童或家庭的安全和穩定的威脅。
* 必須發展一座關係橋,讓孩子和照顧者一同參與並保持和最大化雙方利益。
* 診斷,治療計劃和結果監測始終以關係(和)優勢為基礎。
* 治療的各個階段均應旨在增強自我情緒調節能力。
* 確定與誰、何時以及如何處理創傷性記憶。
* 預防和管理關係中斷和社會心理危機。
===成人===
====創傷復原模型-朱迪思·赫爾曼====
朱迪思·路易斯·赫爾曼博士在《創傷與復原》一書中提出,複雜性創傷復原模型,分三個階段進行:
# 建立安全
# 紀念和哀悼失去的東西
# 與社區和更廣泛的社會重新聯繫
赫爾曼認為,只有在療癒性的關係中,且只有當倖存者被這種關係賦予權力時,復原才會發生。不過,這種療癒性關係不一定是通俗意義上的浪漫或性關係中的「關係」,也可以包括與朋友、同事、自己的親屬或子女的關係,以及{{link-en|諮商關係|Therapeutic relationship}}。<ref name="TAR" />
複雜的創傷意味著複雜的反應,這就導致了複雜的治療。{{來源請求}}因此,C-PTSD的治療需要多模型的思路。<ref name="Cook2005" />
有學者提出,複雜性PTSD的治療應不同於PTSD的治療,應關注那些比PTSD症狀造成更多功能障礙的問題。包括{{link-en|情緒失調|emotional dysregulation}}、[[解離 (心理学)|解離]]和人際問題。<ref name="vanderKolkRoth2005" /> 複雜性創傷治療的六個核心組成部分包括:<ref name="Cook2005" />
# 安全
# 自我調節
# 自我言行回饋(self-reflective)資訊處理
# 創傷經驗整合
# 關係的參與
# 增強正面效果
上述內容可以概念化為一個模型,分為三個階段。每個案例都不一樣,但可預期第一階段包括教授適當的生活挑戰應對策略和解決安全問題。下一階段的重點是有能力減少對創傷性刺激的迴避,並運用第一階段學到的應對技巧。照顧者也可以開始挑戰關於創傷的假設,並引入關於創傷的其他敘述。最後階段將包括鞏固以前所學到的知識,並將這些策略應用於未來遇到的壓力事件。<ref>{{Cite journal|first=David|last=Lawson| name-list-style = vanc |date=July 2017|title=Treating Adults With Complex Trauma: An Evidence-Based Case Study|journal=Journal of Counseling and Development|volume=95|issue=3|pages=288–298|doi=10.1002/jcad.12143}}</ref>
====神經科學和創傷知情干預====
在實踐中,治療和干預的形式因人而異,因為兒童時期的發育創傷和症狀的經歷範圍很廣,並不是所有倖存者都能對同樣的治療作出正面、相同的反應。因此,治療一般都是因人而異的。<ref>|{{cite journal | vauthors = Schnyder U, Ehlers A, Elbert T, Foa EB, Gersons BP, Resick PA, Shapiro F, Cloitre M | display-authors = 6 | title = Psychotherapies for PTSD: what do they have in common? | journal = European Journal of Psychotraumatology | volume = 6 | pages = 28186 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26290178 | pmc = 4541077 | doi = 10.3402/ejpt.v6.28186 }}</ref> 最近的神經科學研究對嚴重的兒童虐待和忽視(創傷)對兒童大腦發育的影響有了一定的了解,特別是它與兒童從嬰兒期到成年期的大腦結構、功能和大腦連結的發展有關。這種對複雜創傷現象的神經生理學基礎的理解是目前在[[創傷學]]領域被稱為 「創傷知情」的東西,它已經成為影響新的治療方法發展的理由,特別是針對那些有兒童發育創傷的人。<ref name = "Anda_2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD, Walker JD, Whitfield C, Perry BD, Dube SR, Giles WH | display-authors = 6 | title = The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology | journal = European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 256 | issue = 3 | pages = 174–86 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16311898 | pmc = 3232061 | doi = 10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Teicher MH, Samson JA, Anderson CM, Ohashi K | title = The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity | journal = Nature Reviews. Neuroscience | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 652–66 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27640984 | doi = 10.1038/nrn.2016.111 | s2cid = 27336625 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308303380 }}</ref> 哈佛大學的精神病學家兼研究人員馬丁·泰克博士提出,特定的複雜性創傷相關症狀的發展(以及事實上,許多成人的精神病理的發展)可能與性別差異以及在[[兒童發展階段|兒童發展的哪個階段]]發生[[創傷]]、[[虐待]]或{{link-en|忽視|child negelet}}有關。<ref name = "Anda_2006" /> 例如,眾所周知,婦女出現[[解離性身份疾患]]往往與[[幼兒]]時期的[[性虐待]]有關。
====實證療法的使用及其局限性====
許多複雜性創傷(或發育創傷症候群)的倖存者目前面臨的挑戰之一是治療方面的支援不足,因目前許多治療方法相對較昂貴,且保險公司以[[循证医学|實證療法]]為報銷的標準,因此並非所有形式的治療或干預都能由保險公司支付。[[認知行為療法]]、{{link-en|長期暴露療法|Prolonged exposure therapy}}和{{link-en|辯證行為療法|Dialectical behavior therapy}}是被廣泛承認的實證{{link-en|干預|intervention}}形式。這些治療方法得到了美國精神病學協會、美國心理學協會和退伍軍人管理局的批准和認可。
雖然標準的[[循证医学|實證療法]]可能有效地治療創傷後壓力症候群,但是治療複雜性PTSD通常涉及解決人際關係困難和一系列不同的症狀,這使得治療更具挑戰性。根據[[美國退伍軍人事務部]]的說法:
<blockquote>
目前的PTSD診斷通常不能完全反映長期、反復的創傷所造成的嚴重心理傷害。遭受長期創傷的人經常除了正式的PTSD症狀外還有報告其他症狀,例如:[[自我概念]]以及他們適應壓力事件方式的改變。<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/complex_ptsd.asp|title=Complex PTSD|date=2019|publisher=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs|accessdate=2020-11-11|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034255/https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/complex_ptsd.asp|dead-url=no}}</ref>
</blockquote>
例如:「有限的證據表明,主流的認知行為治療(一種基於證據的治療)是有效的,但它不足以達到令人滿意的最終狀態,特別是在複雜性創傷後壓力症候群體中」。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorrepaal E, Thomaes K, Hoogendoorn AW, Veltman DJ, Draijer N, van Balkom AJ | title = Evidence-based treatment for adult women with child abuse-related Complex PTSD: a quantitative review | journal = European Journal of Psychotraumatology | volume = 5 | pages = 23613 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25563302 | pmc = 4199330 | doi = 10.3402/ejpt.v5.23613 }}</ref>
====治療方面的挑戰====
從事創傷領域工作者普遍認為,對於複雜性創傷後壓力症候群,沒有一種單一的、標準的、「萬能的」的治療方法。臨床心理學家、社會工作者、執業治療師和精神病學家等等廣大精神衛生專業群體對最佳治療方法也沒有明確的共識。但大多數創傷神經科學知識豐富的參與者都明白,利用「自上而下」和「自下而上」干預的組合,以及包括身體化干預(感覺運動心理治療或軀體體驗或瑜伽)來處理和整合創傷記憶的重要性。
患有複雜性創傷的幸存者往往難以找到在創傷知情實踐方面受過適當培訓的心理健康專業人員。治療普通醫生沒有普遍認識或理解的心理健康問題時,要獲得適當的治療和服務是相當有挑戰性的。艾力斯戴(Allistair)博士和胡爾(Hull)博士響應了許多其他創傷神經科學研究者(包括貝索·馮·德·克洛博士和布魯斯·D·佩瑞(Bruce D. Perry)博士)的觀點,他們認為:
<blockquote>
複雜的創傷表現往往被排除在研究之外,因為它們不符合研究力量所需的簡單疾病分類學分類。無論是目前還是在歷史上,在個人層面和社會面上,「不承認虐待兒童對大腦發育的嚴重影響,導致提供的治療服務不足。將新出現的關於逆境經驗的情感神經科學納入治療模式,可以將重點從自上而下的調節轉向自下而上的、基於身體的處置,從而有助於糾正這種平衡」。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Corrigan FM, Hull AM | title = Neglect of the complex: why psychotherapy for post-traumatic clinical presentations is often ineffective | journal = BJPsych Bulletin | volume = 39 | issue = 2 | pages = 86–9 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 26191439 | pmc = 4478904 | doi = 10.1192/pb.bp.114.046995 }}</ref>
</blockquote>
====建議的治療方式和干預措施====
===爭議===
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* {{cite journal | vauthors = van der Kolk BA | s2cid = 28935850 | title = Clinical implications of neuroscience research in PTSD | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1071 | issue = 1 | pages = 277–93 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16891578 | doi = 10.1196/annals.1364.022 | bibcode = 2006NYASA1071..277V }}
*{{Cite article|last=van der Kolk|first=Bessel|name-list-format=vanc|url=http://www.traumacenter.org/products/Developmental_Trauma_Disorder.pdf|title=Developmental trauma disorder|publisher=Psychiatric Annals|year=2005|pages=401–408|access-date=2020-08-02|archive-date=2017-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116131957/http://www.traumacenter.org/products/Developmental_Trauma_Disorder.pdf|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = van der Kolk BA, Stone L, West J, Rhodes A, Emerson D, Suvak M, Spinazzola J | title = Yoga as an adjunctive treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 75 | issue = 6 | pages = e559-65 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 25004196 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.13m08561 | url = https://besselvanderkolk.net/uploads/3/4/9/8/34980287/yoga_f_j_clin_psychiat___1_.pdf | access-date = 2020-08-02 | archive-date = 2018-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180304083148/http://besselvanderkolk.net/uploads/3/4/9/8/34980287/yoga_f_j_clin_psychiat___1_.pdf | dead-url =
* {{cite book | last = Walker | first = Pete | name-list-format = vanc | date = December 2013 | url = https://booksgoogle.ca/books?id=32AQnwEACAAJ&dq=pete+walker&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUn8OKgrjPAhUIyWMKHWfGD10Q6AEILDAB | title = Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving: A Guide and Map for Recovering from Childhood Trauma | publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | isbn = 978-1-4928-7184-2 }}{{Dead link}}
{{refend}}
==外部連結==
*[https://freeryou.com/2126/cptsd/ CPTSD介紹與創傷反應類型4F] {{Wayback|url=https://freeryou.com/2126/cptsd/ |date=20220707043114 }}
*{{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Anxiety/Post-traumatic_Stress/|創傷後症候群}}
* [http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/ APA practice parameters for assessment and treatment for PTSD (Updated 2017)]
{{Borderline personality disorder}}
{{abuse}}
{{ICD-11-06}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:複雜性創傷後壓力症候群}}
[[Category:創傷學]]
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