複雜性創傷後壓力症候群
複雜性創傷後壓力症候群(英語:complex post-traumatic stress disorder,縮寫為C-PTSD,也稱為複雜性創傷症候群)[1]是一種心理疾病,可能在個人很少或沒有機會逃脫的情況下,因長期反复的人際創傷經歷而形成。[2]C-PTSD與精神障礙的創傷模型有關,也和長期持續的性、心理與自戀型(兒童)虐待和身體虐待或忽視、長期親密伴侶暴力、長期的職場或校園霸凌的受害者[3][4]、綁架和人質情況的受害者、契約奴隸、奴隸制和人口販運的受害者、血汗工廠工人、戰俘、集中營倖存者、住宿學校倖存者、以及邪教組織或類似邪教組織的脫離者有關聯。[5] 涉及被囚禁/誘騙的情況(缺乏為受害者提供可望成功的逃生路線或逃生感的一種情況)可能導致類似C-PTSD的症狀,其中包括長期的恐懼感,無價值感,無助感以及個人的自我認同和自我感受的變形。[6]
C-PTSD也被稱為DESNOS或其他未指定的極端壓力障礙。[7]
一些研究人員認為,C-PTSD與PTSD、身體化症、解離性身份疾患和邊緣性人格障礙不同但相似。[6] 其主要差異是個人核心自我認同的扭曲和嚴重的情緒失調。[8] 美國精神病學家和學者朱迪思·赫爾曼(Judith Herman)於1992年在她的《創傷與復原》一書以及隨附的文章中首次描述了這種疾病。[6][9][10] 在世界衛生組織(WHO)國際疾病與相關健康問題統計分類的第11版(ICD-11)中收錄了該疾病。將C-PTSD標準納入精神疾病診斷與統計手冊(DSM)之提案尚未通過美國精神病學協會(APA)的私人批准委員會批准。複雜性創傷後壓力症候群也獲得美國退伍軍人事務部(VA),澳大利亞衛生直轄區(HDA)和國家衛生局(NHS)認可。
症狀
兒童與青少年
PTSD的診斷最初是為遭受單一事件創傷(例如性侵)或戰爭中經歷過創傷的成年人開發的。[11] 但是,許多孩子的情況截然不同。兒童可能會遭受長期創傷,例如:虐待、家庭暴力、家庭失能(英語:dysfunction),和可能包括和主要照顧者的依戀中斷。[12] 大部分情況是孩子的照顧者造成創傷。[11] PTSD診斷未考慮兒童發育階段如何影響其症狀以及創傷如何影響兒童的成長。[11] 發育創傷障礙(英語:developmental trauma disorder,縮寫為DTD)一詞被提議視為兒童期的C-PTSD。[12] 這種創傷的發展方式使兒童處於患精神和醫學疾病的風險中。[12] 貝索·馮·德·克洛博士將DTD解釋為遭遇許多人際創傷,例如:人身傷害、性傷害、暴力或死亡。也可以透過主觀事件,如:遺棄,背叛,失敗或羞恥造成。[13] 在兒童時期反覆遭受創傷將導致不同於PTSD的症狀。[13] 庫克等人在七個方面描述了其症狀和行為特徵:[14][1]
- 依戀-「存在關係界線的問題、缺乏信任、社會孤立、難以感知和回應他人的情緒狀態」
- 生物學-「感覺-運動發育障礙、感覺統合困難、身體化症和醫療問題增加」
- 情感或情緒調節-「情緒調節不良、難以識別、表達情緒與內在狀態、難以溝通需求、欲望和願望」
- 解離-「失憶、人格解體、分離獨立的意識與分離獨立的記憶、情緒、功能,以及基於情緒的事件記憶受損」
- 行為控制-「有衝動控制、侵略性問題、病理性自慰問題和睡眠疾患」
- 認知-「難以集中注意力;各種『執行功能』的問題,如:計畫、判斷、任務啟動力、使用物品、自我監控;難以處理新訊息;難以集中精力和完成任務;物體恆定感差;難以思考因果關係;以及語言發展問題,例如接受訊息與表達的溝通能力間的差距」
- 自我概念-「自傳體敘事斷斷續續,身體形象混亂,自尊心低落,羞恥感過強以及自我的負面內在運作模式」
成人
患有C-PTSD的成年人有時會在兒童時代開始經歷長時間的人際創傷,而不是在成年時期開始,或者也同樣於成人期遭遇人際創傷。這些早期傷害打斷了對自我和他人強烈的自我意識的發展。由於諸如照顧者或年長的兄弟姐妹之類的依戀對象經常造成身體和情感上的痛苦或忽視,因此這些人可能會感到自己從根本上存在缺陷,無法依靠他人。[9][15] 這可能成為成人生活中與他人交往的普遍方式,稱為不安全依戀。在當前的DSM-5(2013)中,這種症狀既沒有包括在解離性障礙的診斷中,也沒有包括在PTSD中。患有複雜性創傷後壓力症候群的人也會表現出持久的人格障礙,同時有顯著的再次受害風險。[16]
建議以以下六類症狀作為診斷C-PTSD的依據:[17][18]
- 情緒調節的變化,包括:持續的煩躁不安,長期的自殺念頭,自殘,爆炸性或極度壓抑的憤怒(可能交替出現)以及強迫性或極度壓抑的性行為(可能交替出現)等經歷。
- 意識變化,例如:失憶症或對創傷事件增強的回憶、一系列解離症狀、人格解體/失實症,和暫時性的回到過往經歷(可能為侵入性的PTSD症狀或反芻性的意念)。
- 自我認知的變化,例如:無助感或主動性的癱瘓,羞恥感、罪惡感和自責感,汙衊感或污名感,以及自己與其他人完全不同的感覺(可能包括特殊感、極端孤獨、相信沒有其他人能理解自己或非人類身份的感覺)。
- 對犯罪者觀念的各種變化,例如:對犯罪者關係的關注(包括對報復的關注),對犯罪者總權力的不切實際的歸因(儘管個人的評估可能比臨床醫生的評估更為現實),理想化或反常的感激之情,對犯罪者有特殊或超自然關係的感覺,並接受犯罪者的信仰體系或合理化。
- 與他人的關係發生改變,例如:孤立和退縮,親密關係破裂,反覆尋找拯救者(可能會和孤立與退縮交替出現),持續的不信任感以及自我保護的反覆失敗。
- 意義系統的變化,例如:喪失持續的信仰以及無望和喪失信心的感覺。
診斷
C-PTSD曾被考慮收錄進DSM-IV,但1994年發布DSM-IV時未將其包括在內。[6] 它也沒有收錄在DSM-5中。創傷後壓力症候群仍被列為一種疾病。[20]
鑑別診斷
創傷後壓力症候群
創傷後壓力症候群(PTSD)被收錄於DSM-III(1980)中,這主要是由於越南戰爭中相對多數的美國前線退伍軍人當時正在尋求對戰鬥壓力的持久影響的療法。在1980年代,各種研究人員和臨床醫生提出,創傷後壓力症候群也可能準確地描述兒童性虐待和家庭虐待等創傷的後遺症。[21] 然而,創傷後壓力症候群無法解釋長期虐待情況下經常觀察到的症狀,尤其是照顧者對兒童在多個童年和青少年發育階段所施行的虐待。這類患者通常極難以當時已知的方法治療。[21]
對PTSD的描寫無法描繪C-PTSD的某些核心特徵。包括囚禁感、心理上的破碎狀態、喪失安全感、信任感和自我價值感,以及重覆再次受害的傾向。最明顯地區別C-PTSD與PTSD的最重要特徵是失去連貫的自我意識以及隨之而來的症狀。[6]:199–122
C-PTSD的特徵還在於依戀障礙,尤其是強烈蔓延的不安全感或無組織依戀。[22] DSM-IV(1994)標準中的解離性障礙和PTSD未包括不安全依戀。因此,當一些患有C-PTSD的成人成為家長面對自己的孩子的依戀需求時,儘管這些家長有強烈的意願和盡了最大的努力,他們可能仍難以特別敏感地做出回應,尤其是對他們的嬰幼兒的日常焦慮,例如:日常的分離焦慮。[23] 儘管絕大多數倖存者不會虐待他人[24],如果患有這種情況的父母及其子女沒有得到適當的治療,這種養育子女的困難可能會對子女的社交和情感發展產生不利影響。[25][26]
因此提出C-PTSD和PTSD的診斷類別的區別。C-PTSD比PTSD更好地描述了長期重複創傷的廣泛負面影響。[19] PTSD可以與C-PTSD並存,但是,僅對PTSD進行診斷通常不能充分囊括那些經歷了長期創傷經歷的人所經歷的症狀廣度,因此C-PTSD拓展了PTSD的診斷範圍。[9]
C-PTSD也不同於由Gill Straker(1987)引入創傷文獻的連續創傷壓力症候群(英語:Continuous Traumatic Stress Disorder)。[27] 它最初是南非臨床醫生用來描述暴露於常與內戰和政治鎮壓相關的頻繁、高度暴力的後果。該術語也適用暴露於幫派暴力和犯罪流行的環境中的影響,以及持續暴露於警察、消防和緊急服務等高風險職業的生命威脅中的影響。
創傷性喪慟
創傷性喪慟[28][29][30][31]或複雜性哀悼[32]為創傷和喪慟同時發生的狀況。[33] 創傷與喪親之間存在概念上的聯繫,因為失去親人本身就是創傷。[34] 如果創傷事件危及生命,但沒有導致死亡,倖存者更可能經歷創傷後壓力症狀。若有人死亡,且倖存者與其關係親近,也可能同時形成喪慟的症狀。當親人突然死亡或因暴力而死亡,兩種症狀將同時出現。這可能發生在遭受社區暴力的兒童身上。[35][36]
於囚禁、失去控制和喪失權力的情況下遭受暴力,並同時在危及生命的情況下遭遇朋友或親人死亡時,C-PTSD將表現出創傷性的悲痛。對於經歷長期家庭暴力或長期社區暴力並最終導致朋友和親人死亡的兒童和繼子女,這很可能再次發生。繼子女遭受暴力和死亡風險增加的現象稱為「灰姑娘效應」。
與邊緣性人格障礙的差異和相似之處
C-PTSD可能與創傷後壓力症候群和邊緣性人格障礙有共同的症狀。[37] 但是,有充足的證據區別C-PTSD與邊緣性人格障礙。
治療
兒童
成人
爭議
另請參閱
參考
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延伸閱讀
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外部連結
- CPTSD介紹與創傷反應類型4F
- 开放目录项目中的“創傷後症候群”
- APA practice parameters for assessment and treatment for PTSD (Updated 2017)