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The history of Tétouan (or Tetouan) stretches over 2000 years to its origins as an Mauretanian Berber settlement named Tamuda, located at near present-day Tetouan by the south bank of the Martil Valley.[1] The site later became a Phoenician trading post. During the time of Emperor Augustus, Tamuda became part of Roman province Mauritania Tingitana.[2][3]

In 1286, the Marinids built a casbah and mosque there. The first large scale building project took place in 1305 when the settlement was expanded by the Marinid king Abu Thabit Amir. The city was later rebuilt and fortified by Ali al-Mandri.

Tetouan is a renowned multicultural center.[4] The medina of Tetouan is a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1997.[5] It has also been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the area of Crafts and Folk Art since 2017.[6][7] It is currently a city of 380,787, the 11th largest in Morocco and part of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima administrative region.[8]

Early settlements

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Nomadic Mauritanian Berbers

Phoenician and Roman presence

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Main articles: Tamuda and Mauretania Tingitana

A few miles outside of the city limits lies the ancient town of Tamuda. Early settlements at the outskirts of the actual city by Mauretanian Berbers date back to the 3rd century BC. Artifacts from both the Phoenician and the Roman era have been found in the site of Tamuda.[2][3] A type of seahorse with rider encountered on a clay disk, representing Punic iconography, was found at the site.[9] It became a Roman colony under Emperor Augustus.

Late Medieval era

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In 1286, the Marinids built a casbah and mosque there. The first large scale building project took place in 1305 when the settlement was expanded by the Marinid sultan Abu Thabit Amir.[10] He fortified the place and had it serve as a base to liberate Ceuta, which had recently come under the rule of their former allies the Granadine Nasrid dynasty. Another reason was to fight Othman ibn abi al-Alaa, a rebellious member of the Marinid dynasty who was based in the mountains of Ghomaras.[11]

In 1431, it was burned down and many were enslaved by the Castilians, because pirates used it as a base for their retaliatory attacks.[12]

The Portuguese were already occupying the neighboring Ceuta and in 1436, its commander Pedro de Menezes (Count of Vila Real) dispatched a detachment of his garrison under his son Duarte de Menezes to raid Tetouan -which was recovering from the Castillian destruction- in order to prevent it from becoming a threat to future Portuguese operations.[13]

Rebuilding the city

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Main article: Ali al-Mandri
A street in the old medina - Photograph by Swiss aviator and photographer Walter Mittelholzer (1928)

A ruin as a base for the exiles

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Tetouan "for many years ... laid in ruins ... was populated by Muslim refugees from the Kingdom of Granada, who fled the growing impetus of the Castilians."[14] By the end of the 15th century, the Spanish Reconquista was completed by the fall of Granada in 1492. It was around that time when dozens of Andalusian Moors refugees led by, Ali al-Mandri, a noble warrior of the Nasrids and former Alcalde of the fortress of Piñar,[15] north east of Granada, first reared the walls and then filled the enclosure with houses.

There are different versions concerning the specific date. On one hand there is an ancient Arabic manuscript and on the other there is the account of 17th century Moroccan historian, Sidi al-Arbi al-Fasi. They offer mixed chronological data. According to the first of the aforementioned sources, the foundation had to take place between 1483 and 1484, while the second source sets the event, with extreme accuracy, on the 7th day of the Islamic month of Sha'ban of the Hijri year 898, a date that corresponds to Friday, May 24, 1493; a year after the surrender of Granada.

And Tettawen (Tetouan) was built with no doubt - in the year of the apple
In the month of Sh'aaban in the Za'e (letter Z) - they started digging and constructing
And it was completed at the end of the Kaff (letter K) - That is true to me without controversy
And the number of the righteous men - Mim and Za'e (letters M and Z) and no more
The number of women dots of the Ya'e (letter Y) So these were who built the foundations -- al-Arbi al-Fasi [16]

This second chronology does not support the assertions of Leo Africanus which states that "the ruins of Tetouan, deserted for ninety-five years, would be rebuilt and populated by the Granadine Al-Mandari, who presented himself to the Sultan of Fes after being expelled from Spain by Ferdinand II of Aragon."[17] However, due to certain events, such as the capture of the bride of Al-Mandari by the Count of Tendilla and his retention in the fortress of Alcalá la Real, it can be stated that prior to the last date mentioned, al-Mandari was already, duly fortified, in Tetouan.[18]

According to historian Mohammad Daoud, and based on al-Arbi al-Fasi's poem and on Arabic numerology, they were around 80 people composed of 47 men, 10 women and approximately 20 children and that constructions took 20 years to complete.[19] It is believed that an ingenious subterranean piping system for water distribution called Skundo (or Scundo) was developed in parallel with the construction of the first houses.[20] It penetrates the ancient city from the far north to the far south. It starts at the top of Mount Dersa and extends underground under channels and pipes made of clay. Although it is not the only ancient water system in Morocco, others were found in Fez and Chefchaouen, it remains the only one still operating.

Fortifications and alliances

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Soon after constructions started, these Andalusian newcomers came into conflict with the Berber Beni Hozmar tribe settling in Jebala mountains surrounding the place,[21] after which they asked the Wattasid sultan for protection. In response, he sent 80 soldiers (according to one chronicle, 40 natives of Fes and 40 Rifians). In turn, the Andalusians paid a large amount of mithqal, thus insuring their autonomy. Historian Skirej provided a different version and mentioned that the Emir could not provide financial assistance but ordered the principal of Al Quaraouiyine University to take from Habous money and lend them 40,000 mithqal. Manuel Castellanos says that it was the Sultan Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya who suggested to them the ruined land after they landed in Martil and offered them protection. [22] Other accounts state that the refugees were first dispersed in a few villages in the mountains and went to the founder and governor of the neighboring newly founded city of Chefchaouen, Ali ibn Rashid al-Alami asking him to send competent people to build a wall of protection for Tetouan[23] and soon the city became surrounded by high walls with observation towers. It had only three doors for access. It looked from outside as if it were a military fortress. In exchange, Al-Mandri put himself at the service of Ali Ibn Rashid, then lord of northern Morocco, who was in constant struggle with the Portuguese garrisons based in Ceuta.[24] The new city was then governed by Al-Mandri, aided by a group of 300 Granadine knights[25]

Elements of military constructions can be found in the original fortifications such as the three forts, the seven gates and the large outer walls that surround the old media.[26][27] They have survived despite the changes that occurred through the expansions known to the city during multiple periods.

To further strenghten and foment unity against the Iberians, al-Mandri's grandson -believed to be Al-Mandri II by Portuguese chroniclers- married Ali Ibn Rashid's daughter, known as Sayyida al-Hurra. She soon became a de facto vice-governor with her husband entrusting her the reins of power each trip he made outside the city. After his death, the population, who had become accustomed to seeing her exercise power, accepted her as a governor of Tétouan, giving her the title of al-Hurra. She later married the Wattasid sultan, Ahmed al-Wattasi, but refused to leave Tétouan to do so. This marriage marks the only time in Moroccan history a King married away from the capital of the time, Fes.[28]

The political situation in Morocco was destabilized by the conflicts between the declining Wattasids and the emergence of the Saadi dynasty and, under these circumstances, the new city enjoyed relative autonomy until late 17th century.

In the coming centuries, it will flourish as a new multicultural center. The completion of the first phase of the construction works was followed by the influx of groups of intellectuals, craftsmen and others from Fes, Rif and Jebala regions. New waves of took refuge in the city following the Spanish Inquisition. They were mainly persecuted Sephardi Jews,[29] including Conversos among them. In 1609, Moriscos were forced out from Spain and many took refuge in the new fortified city, not far away from their lost lands hoping for a quick return; something that would never happen. Tetouan will soon emerge as a cultural center thanks to the exiled scholars, craftsmen, merchants and writers striving to revive their Andalusian past glory in Morocco.

Piracy and Mazmorras

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This period can be understood within geopolitical and religious contexts. The Ottomans had just captured Constantinople in 1453 marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. The Portuguese has just started their colonial conquest by capturing some ports at the western coast of Morocco in 1487. A few years later, Granada was falling into the hands of the Catholic Monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon and with that, forced conversions of Muslims in Spain followed.

The port of Martil as a corsair base

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Naval flag of Tetouan (1783)

As early as the 1530s and 1540s, at the time when Spain and the Ottoman Empire were disputing control over the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, piracy was spreading and soon Tetouan became a base for maritime Jihad (in its post-classical sense).[30] and one of the main centers of the piracy in the region.[31] Corsairs considered it as a form of retaliation against the Spanish Reconquista that led to the loss of their homes back in al-Andalus[32] especially that the timing coincided with the first Morisco influx to Tetouan due to the forced conversions they faced in Spain between 1501 and 1526.[33]

The city re-founders, assisted by tribes from the surrounding mountains, started harassing the Spanish possessions on the Moroccan coast. During this time, the city remained autonomous from the newly established Saadi dynasty, with the Saadis constantly trying to assert their power. Meanwhile, Al-Hurra allied with the Turkish corsair Barbarossa of Algiers.[34] She controlled the western part of the Mediterranean while Barbarossa controlled the eastern.[35] Future collaborators included English and Dutch renegades[36] who were mostly Protestants although a few had converted to Islam.[37]

These attacks led to the destruction of the city's harbor by the Spanish in 1565 after Álvaro de Bazán blocked the river of the Martil Valley with stones brought from Gibraltar.[38] Piracy continued and in 1829, the Austrian Empire bombarded the city as a reprisal.[39]

The Mazmorras of Cervantes and Leo Africanus

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Dungeons of Tetouan - known as Mazmorras - mentioned in Cervantes's El juez de los divorcios

While the harbor of Martil served as a port from where piracy missions were launched, captives were taken to dungeons located inside the walled fortifications. They were underground prisoner complexes with a series of connected excavated caves called Mazmorras. The captives were faced with being sold to the slavery market if ransoms were not paid.[40] These subterranean installations were rediscovered in early 20th century. A chapel of a size of 90 square meters and a few altars were also uncovered.[41] The sacred site, named Nuestra Señora de los Dolores (Our Lady of Sorrows), was used by the captives and redeemers like their relatives or Spanish Franciscans and Portuguese Jesuits who used to make frequent visits to negotiate the Christian captives' freedom.[42]

Miguel De Cervantes, himself a captive in Algiers, Algeria between 1575-80, refers to Mazmorras in El juez de los divorcios (The Divorce Judge) where the protagonist compares his marriage to "captivity in Tetouan’s caves."[43] He also did it in Don Quixote, in addition to talking about Tetouan in El trato de Argel, La gran sultana and La ilustre fregona. It is believed that he had contact with some incarcerated who told him about the hardness of the dungeons of Tetouan.[44] Diplomat and explorer Leo Africanus, while visiting the city, mentions in his book Description of Africa that there were 3,000 captives although some historians dispute that figure.[45] Other accounts came from captives themselves such as Germain Moüette who spoke of horrible conditions lived inside those mazmorras in the late 17th century. Mohammed Daoud notes that chronicler Abu Hamed affirmed that the casbah of Al-Mandari was built by Christian prisoners to strenghten the northern defenses of the city.[46]

The underground prison was explored in 1922 by Cesar Luis de Montalban based on a report by archeologist Manuel Gómez-Moreno Martínez.[47] The Spanish Protectorate administration then commissioned architect Carlos Ovilo to study the site but they found out that no excavation could be possible without taking the risk of damaging the housing above the site. Since then, no excavation was made although, recently, some researchers and civil associations are calling for the authorities to extend exploration and restoration before opening it to the public.[48]

Jewish and Morisco presence

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Jewish Festival in Tetouan - Painting by French artist Alfred Dehodencq (1865)
Morisco architecture - Riad al-Ochack gardens

Tetouan has been home to a significant Sephardi Jewish and Morisco communities who immigrated from Spain after the Reconquista and the Spanish Inquisition.

The completion of the first phase of the construction works was followed by the influx of new waves of refugees following the Spanish Inquisition. They were mainly persecuted Sephardi Jews,[49] including Conversos among them. In 1609, Moriscos were forced out from Spain and many took refuge in the new fortified city, not far away from their lost lands hoping for a quick return; something that would never happen. Tetouan will soon emerge as a cultural center thanks to the exiled scholars, craftsmen, merchants and writers striving to revive their Andalusian past glory in Morocco.

However, in 1790, a pogrom happened, started by Alaouite Sultan Yazid. The mellah was pillaged and many women raped.[50] The Jews lived in a mellah, which is located inside the old medina. Jewish Sephardi community spoke a form of Judaeo-Spanish known as Haketia.[51]

By 1860, there were a total of 16 synagogues in Tetouan although some accounts talk about 18.[52] Following the exodus of Jews from Morocco after 1948, there are very few Jews left in Tetouan.[53] By 1967, only 12 remained (López Álvarez, 2003). During that period, many emigrated to South America and much later to Israel, Spain, France and Canada. Today, the only synagogue remaining is that of Rabbi Isaac Bengualid which serves as a museum.

The Paris-based international Jewish organization Alliance Israélite Universelle opened its first school in Tetouan in 1862.[54]

Jews of Tetouan have their own cemetery. It is more than 500 years old, with approximately 35,000 tombstones, making it the largest Jewish cemetery in Morocco.[55]

While only a few Jews remain in Tétouan, families of Morisco descents are still present and many are easily recognizable by their Spanish surnames such as Torres, Raghon (Áragon), Garcia, Sordo, Molina, Lucas.[56]

Late military history

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In the 17th century, the city was governed by the wealthy al-Naksis family. At the end of the century, the city was taken by the Alaouite sultan Moulay Ismail who encountered fierce resistance. Tetouan remained fragile, until it was taken by Ahmad al-Riffi, the Alaouite governor of Tangier and leader of the Berber army Jaysh al-Rifi that had conquered Tangier from the British. Al-Riffi ushered in a period of stability in Tetouan, building many of Tetouan's landmarks such as the Meshwar palace and the Pasha mosque, the oldest still standing mosque in Tetouan. After his death, the city again rebelled and was only nominally controlled by the central government.

Hispano-Moroccan War and the Spanish Protectorate

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The Battle of Tetuan, part of The 1st Conde de Lucena's Moroccan campaigns on behalf of Spain's Queen Isabella II in the early 1860s, painted by Marià Fortuny (Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya)
Main articles: Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–60), Battle of Tetouan, and Spanish protectorate in Morocco

In 1844, Morocco lost its war against the French and in 1856, it signed the "Anglo-Moroccan treaties of Friendship" with the British. The Spaniards saw the Moroccan defeat in 1844 and the 1856 treaties with the British as a sign of weakness. Spurred by a national passion for African conquest, the Spaniards declared war on Morocco in 1859 after a conflict over the borders of the Ceuta.

After a few months, Tetouan was taken on 4 February 1860 under the command of General Leopoldo O'Donnell who was a descendant of an old Irish royal family, the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell. He was made hereditary Duque de Tetuán, and later served as Prime Minister of Spain. However, the Spanish evacuated on May 1862.

In 1913, it became the capital of the Spanish protectorate of Morocco, which was governed by the Jalifa (Moroccan prince, serving as Viceroy for the Sultan), and the Spanish "Alto Comisario" accredited to him, and it remained its capital until 1956.

Tetouan was further expanded when it became the capital of the Spanish protectorate in Morocco between 1913 and 1956. The Spanish administration built several new neighborhoods outside the walled medina. The city underwent an intense urban transformation for which its new neighborhoods and buildings, called "Ensanche" (meaning extension), acquired an image very similar to those of other Spanish cities of the time. Its structure was organized around a large circular plaza, now called 'Plaza Mulay el Mehdi' (formerly Plaza Primo de Rivera).[57] The influence of the protectorate has remained important even after the independence of the country in 1956.

The nationalist movement

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Tetouani women affiliated with Istiqlal Party

Tetouan was one of the most active moroccan cities in resisting colonialism.[58] The nationalist movement in Tetouan was led by the charismatic leader Abdelkhalek Torres and other personalities such as Abdessalam Bennuna and historian Mohammed Daoud.[59] The movement was part of the pan-Arab nationalist movements. The movement established deep ties with Arab nationalist leaders such as former Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Druze prince and intellectual Shakib Arslan. When Arsalan wanted to visit Morocco in August 1930 he was not given permit by the French protectorate but then went to Tangier, then having international status under foreign colonial powers, and from there to Tetouan where he met the group.[60] Many of the members later joined the National Party for Istiqlal. Others joined some other nationalist parties and many members were women.[61]

Modern history

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In January 1984, and in the midst of the Years of Lead under the reign of late King Hassan II, a revolt spread into several cities for several days due to price hikes concerning basic goods following the implementation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Structural adjustment programme before it was thwarted by a military intervention.[62] Twenty people were killed in Tetouan and many others were arrested and received heavy sentences.[63]

Many people in the city still speak Spanish. On road signs often names are written both in Spanish and in Arabic, though many signs are in Arabic and French, the second language of modern Morocco.

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[edit]

والوصول إليها من خلال سبعة أبواب اخشبية منحوتة هي: باب العقلة، و باب سعيدة (في الشرق)، و باب المقابر، و باب الجياف (في الشمال)، و باب النوادر (غرب)، و باب التوت، و باب الرموز (في الجنوب).

Maritime history

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Piracy

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Sayyida al Hurra

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Jews in Tetouan

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Regulares

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Valenciana

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References and notes

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  1. ^ BRIGITTE., HIMPAN (2019). NOMADS OF MAURITANIA. WILMINGTON: VERNON PRESS. p. 478. ISBN 978-1622734108. OCLC 1053895765.
  2. ^ a b M. Tarradell, El poblamiento antiguo del Rio Martin, Tamuda, IV, 1957, p. 272 (in Spanish)
  3. ^ a b M. R. El Azifi, « L'habitat ancien de la vallée de Martil » in Revue de la Faculté des lettres de Tétouan, 1990, 4e année, n° 4, p. 65-81. (in Arabic)
  4. ^ The new encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc. (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1997. p. 659. ISBN 0852296339. OCLC 35581195.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  5. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Medina of Tétouan (formerly known as Titawin)". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  6. ^ "Tétouan | Creative Cities Network". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  7. ^ "Tetouan Joins UNESCO's Creative Cities Network | MAP". www.mapnews.ma. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  8. ^ (Census 2014) "Population légale d'après les résultats du RGPH 2014 sur le Bulletin officiel N° 6354".
  9. ^ Josette., Elayi (2009). The coinage of the Phoenician city of Tyre in the Persian period (5th-4th cent. BCE). Elayi, A. G. Leuven: Peeters. p. 264. ISBN 9789042922020. OCLC 476143018.
  10. ^ Ali ibn-abi-Zar' (1326) - Rawd Al-Kirtas (Histoire des souverains du Maghreb et annales de la ville de Fès. Traduction française Auguste Beaumier. Editions La Porte, Rabat, 1999, 325 p.
  11. ^ Al-Istiqsa الاستقصا لأخبار دول المغرب الأقصى (Volume III - pages 95/96/97)
  12. ^ Barnaby., Rogerson (29 March 2011). The last crusaders : East, West, and the battle for the center of the world. New York. ISBN 9781468302882. OCLC 859325184.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ 1891-, Julien, Charles André (1972). Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc. Payot. p. 195. OCLC 848005. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Lopes, David (1924). História de Arzila durante o Domínio Português. Imprensa da universidade, Coimbra. pp. 389–390.
  15. ^ 1916-1999, Gozalbes Busto, Guillermo (1993). Al-Mandari, el Granadino, fundador de Tetuán. G. Gozalbes Busto. p. 75. ISBN 8460451925. OCLC 761308495. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Daoud, Mohammed - Tarikh Tetouan (1959) (p.86)
  17. ^ 1550., Leo, Africanus, approximately 1492-approximately (2010). The history and description of Africa and of the notable things therein contained. Brown, Robert, 1842-1895. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 632. ISBN 9781108012881. OCLC 717137503. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ "Alí Al-Mandarín. El granadino fundador de Tetuán - Nueva Acrópolis Granada". granada.nueva-acropolis.es (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-07.
  19. ^ محمد., داود، (2013). تاريخ تطوان (in Arabic). pp. 86–87. ISBN 9789954941003. OCLC 936340781.
  20. ^ Mohamed., El Abdellaoui (1986). La Médina de Tétouan et son évolution récente étude de géographie urbaine. [s.n.] OCLC 490592558.
  21. ^ (Jara, Alfonso) - (1903), De Madrid á Tetuán, p.244
  22. ^ محمد., داود، (2013). تاريخ تطوان (in Arabic). p. 89. ISBN 9789954941003. OCLC 936340781.
  23. ^ محمد., داود، (2013). تاريخ تطوان (in Arabic). p. 90. ISBN 9789954941003. OCLC 936340781.
  24. ^ "Alí Al-Mandarín. El granadino fundador de Tetuán - Nueva Acrópolis Granada". granada.nueva-acropolis.es (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-07.
  25. ^ Leo Africanus, "The History and Description of Africa: And of the Notable Things Therein" (Paris Edition (1897) - Vol. 2 - p.255)
  26. ^ El mundo militar: revista mensual, Volume 8. University of Wisconsin - Madison. 1915.
  27. ^ Christine., Osborne (1994). Morocco (1st rev. ed.). Ashbourne: MPC. pp. 107–108. ISBN 0861905407. OCLC 32382633.
  28. ^ Fatima., Mernissi (1993). The forgotten queens of Islam. Lakeland, Mary Jo. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 18. ISBN 0816624380. OCLC 28901419.
  29. ^ Abigail, Green (2010). Moses Montefiore : Jewish liberator, imperial hero. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 301. ISBN 9780674056442. OCLC 852899163.
  30. ^ Bernard Lewis states that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understood jihad to be a military endeavor, after Islamic conquest stagnated and the caliphate broke up into smaller states the "irresistible and permanent jihad came to an end". As jihad became unfeasible it was "postponed from historic to messianic time." See The Political Language of Islam, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 72.
  31. ^ Adriana, Valencia (2011). Migration and the City: Urban Effects of the Morisco Expulsion (Thesis). UC Berkeley. p. 49.
  32. ^ Dana., Facaros (1981). Mediterranean island hopping : the Spanish islands : a handbook for the independent traveller. Pauls, Michael. New York, N.Y.: Hippocrene Books. p. 223. ISBN 0882545884. OCLC 8035048.
  33. ^ 1936, Monter, William (2002). Frontiers of heresy : the Spanish Inquisition from the Basque lands to Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 126. ISBN 0521522595. OCLC 49594009. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Ulrike., Klausman (2010). Women Pirates and the Politics of the Jolly Roger. Perseus Book LLC. p. 98. ISBN 978-1282000018. OCLC 892994261.
  35. ^ author., Qazi, Moin, 1956- (2015). Women in Islam : exploring new paradigms. ISBN 9789384878030. OCLC 906544767. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Doctorant., Herhsenzon, Daniel Bernardo. Early modern Spain and the creation of the Mediterranean captivity, commerce, and knowledge. p. 11. OCLC 949200820.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Ina., Baghdiantz McCabe (2008). Orientalism in early modern France : Eurasian trade, exoticism, and the Ancien Régime. Oxford: Berg. pp. 86–87. ISBN 9781847884633. OCLC 423067636.
  38. ^ 1550., Leo, Africanus, approximately 1492-approximately (2010). The history and description of Africa and of the notable things therein contained. Brown, Robert, 1842-1895. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 632. ISBN 9781108012881. OCLC 717137503. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ "'Abd ar-Rasham". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. I: A-Ak - Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
  40. ^ 1962, Armstrong-Roche, Michael (2010). Cervantes' epic novel : empire, religion, and the dream life of heroes in Persiles. Gibson Library Connections. Toronto [Ont.]: University of Toronto Press. p. 52. ISBN 9781442687578. OCLC 635459383. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ "Las mazmorras de Tetuán, escenario en la obra de Cervantes". ELMUNDO (in Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  42. ^ "The Blind Plumber of Tetouan | VQR Online". www.vqronline.org. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  43. ^ Razón, La. "Marruecos, una inspiración para Cervantes". www.larazon.es (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-05.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ INFORMACION. "Las mazmorras que temía Cervantes". Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  45. ^ "The Blind Plumber of Tetouan | VQR Online". www.vqronline.org. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  46. ^ Daoud, Mohammed (1993). History of Tétouan (تاريخ تطوان) (PDF) (in Arabic). p. 92. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  47. ^ "LAS MAZMORRAS DE TETUAN". Circulo Diwan (in European Spanish). 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  48. ^ Alicante, Unidad de Comunicación. Universidad de. "Investigadores de la Universidad de Alicante viajan a Tetúan para recuperar las antiguas mazmorras de La Medina donde estuvo preso Cervantes". web.ua.es (in Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  49. ^ Abigail, Green (2010). Moses Montefiore : Jewish liberator, imperial hero. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 301. ISBN 9780674056442. OCLC 852899163.
  50. ^ Norman A. Stilman (1979) The Jews of Arab Lands. A History and Source Book., 309;"On Saturday, the second of the above-mentioned month of Sha'ban, our Master al-Yazid--may God grant him victory--ordered the pillaging of the Mellah of Tetouan. They fell upon the Jews' women and took their virginity, and they did not leave a single one of them."
  51. ^ Paloma, Vanessa (2012-09-28), Abécassis, Frédéric; Aouad, Rita; Dirèche, Karima (eds.), "Judeo-Spanish in Morocco : Language, identity, separation or integration?", La bienvenue et l’adieu | 1 : Migrants juifs et musulmans au Maghreb (XVe-XXe siècle), Description du Maghreb, Centre Jacques-Berque, pp. 103–112
  52. ^ María., López Alvarez, Ana (2003). La comunidad judía de Tetuán, 1881-1940 : onomástica y sociología en el libro de registro de circuncisiones del rabino Yiṣḥaq Bar Vid Al Haṣerfaty. [Toledo, Spain]: Museo Sefardi. p. 80. ISBN 8436936809. OCLC 55502651.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ "Interview with M'Hammad Bennaboud: The Muslims and Jews of Tétouan - Qantara.de". Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
  54. ^ A., Tessler, Mark (1994). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 29. ISBN 0253358485. OCLC 28799186.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ "Tetouan". Museum of The Jewish People - Beit Hatfutsot:בית התפוצות - מוזיאון העם היהודי'. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
  56. ^ "Los moriscos piden equipararse a los sefardíes y piden la nacionalidad española". ABC España. DIARIO ABC, S.L. February 17, 2014. Archived from the original on February 18, 2014.
  57. ^ de., Sierra Ochoa, Alfonso (1960). El plano de la ciudad de Tetuán. pp. 20, 21, 25. OCLC 163789170.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ 1973-, Lawrence, Adria (16 September 2013). Imperial rule and the politics of nationalism : anti-colonial protest in the French empire. New York, NY, USA. pp. 169–173. ISBN 9781107037090. OCLC 841515692. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ R., Pennell, C. (2000). Morocco since 1830 : a history. London: Hurst & Co. p. 233. ISBN 1850652732. OCLC 42954024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ R., Pennell, C. (2000). Morocco since 1830 : a history. London: Hurst & Co. p. 233. ISBN 1850652732. OCLC 42954024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ "المرأة التطوانية من المقاومة المسلحة إلى النضال السياسي من أجل الاستقلال (الجزء 2)". canaltetouan.com (in Arabic). Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  62. ^ Kamm, Henry. "RIOTING FOMENTED, MOROCCAN ASSERTS". Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  63. ^ Kamm, Henry. "ENVOYS ESTIMATE 60 HAVE DIED IN MOROCCAN RIOTS". Retrieved 2018-10-03.

Bibliography

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Sources

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